tlit  Qfcalogint/ 

PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


Division. .... 

i 

Section . 


LA7I 

M75 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


https://archive.org/details/sourcebookofhist00monr_0 


SOURCE  BOOK  OF  THE  HISTORY 
OF  EDUCATION 

FOR  THE  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PERIOD 


SOURCE  BOOK 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 

FOR  THE 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PERIOD 


BY 

/ 

PAUL  MONROE,  Ph.D. 

ADJUNCT  PROFESSOR  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION, 
TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


Neto  Jgarfe 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 

I9I5 


All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1901, 

By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  October,  1901.  Reprinted  April, 
1902  ;  January,  1906  ;  January,  1910;  September,  1913;  August, 
I9IS« 


NorbiootJ  IPress 

J.  S.  Cushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


Since  neither  history  nor  education  has  a  meaning  of 
universal  acceptation,  the  “History  of  Education”  presents 
for  solution  a  problem  containing  two  variable  quantities. 
Without  attempt  at  definition  of  either  term,  the  following 
selections  from  the  literary  sources  are  presented  as  an  aid 
to  the  exposition  of  education  in  its  historic  aspect.  For 
the  most  part,  these  relate  to  education  in  the  accepted 
historic  meaning  of  the  term,  —  that  of  a  definitely  organ¬ 
ized  institutional  attempt  to  realize  in  individuals  the  ideals 
controlling  a  given  people.  In  the  early  historic  period  of 
any  people  such  efforts  are  not  exerted  through  an  insti¬ 
tution  specially  organized  for  the  one  purpose ;  hence  the 
earlier  sources  are  quite  general  in  their  nature,  relating 
more  to  the  aims  and  ideals  of  education  than  to  its  organ¬ 
ization.  The  great  majority  of  the  selections,  however, 
deal  with  education  as  the  work  of  a  specific  institution, 
for  thus  it  is  found  to  be  as  soon  as  a  people  comes  into  a 
consciousness  of  its  own  ends  and  of  ways  of  attaining 
them.  With  the  Greeks  a  third  type  of  sources  is  essen¬ 
tial  to  an  understanding  of  their  educational  thought 
and  practices.  These  are  the  philosophical  discussions  of 
education,  both  as  to  its  proper  function  and  as  to  its 
theoretically  perfect  means. 


VI 


Preface 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  all  such  sources  for  the 
Greek  and  Roman  people  are  here  presented ;  for  it  would 
be  a  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  task  to  indicate  the  limits 
of  the  literature  that  might  be  used  as  historical  evidence. 
Nevertheless,  this  volume  includes  most  of  the  important 
discussions  of  organized  educational  efforts  that  are  to  be 
found  in  classical  literature.  There  exist  other  sources, 
such  as  inscriptions,  vase  and  mural  paintings,  and  other 
art  works,  which  possess  no  less  value  as  sources  than  the 
literary  monuments  of  the  past,  and  which  offer  corrobora¬ 
tive  evidence  for  the  use  of  the  historian. 

The  purpose  of  this  volume  is  to  render  accessible  to 
the  student  with  limited  time  and  limited  library  facilities, 
the  ideas  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  concerning  education, 
and  such  descriptions  of  their  educational  systems  as  are 
given  in  their  own  literature.  In  lieu  of  such  available 
material  the  student  has  hitherto  been  restricted  to  second¬ 
ary  or  more  remote  discussions,  which  in  many  cases  are 
not  even  based  upon  a  study  of  the  sources.  It  is  believed 
that  by  such  direct  study  there  will  result,  not  only  a  more 
correct  idea  of  the  education  of  the  classical  period,  but 
also  a  better  apprehension  of  the  meaning  of  education  in 
its  historical  and  contemporary  aspects.  This  volume  is 
designed  as  a  text;  hence  the  sources  are  classified  into 
periods,  in  order  to  afford  the  student  aid  in  their  interpre¬ 
tation,  and  each  group  of  sources  is  accompanied  by  a 
brief  introductory  sketch  indicating  the  general  setting 
of  the  period  to  which  it  belongs  and  the  main  principles 
of  interpretation  to  be  followed.  These  introductory  chap¬ 
ters  furnish  little  more  than  a  syllabus  for  study;  the 


Preface 


•  • 

vn 

interpretation  is  purposely  left  in  a  large  degree  to  the 
student.  The  brief  connecting  links  between  the  various 
periods  under  which  the  sources  are  classified  secure  for 
the  student  a  connected  text,  and  do  away  with  a  seri¬ 
ous  limitation  to  the  usefulness  of  many  source  books. 

As  far  as  possible,  all  questions  of  controverted  his¬ 
torical  interpretation  and  all  textual  criticism  have  been 
avoided.  There  has  been  no  effort  at  original  translation, 
since  with  one  or  two  minor  exceptions  standard  versions 
are  available,  and  the  greater  need  is  for  selection  and 
classification.  Wherever  possible,  selections  have  been 
made  from  such  translations  as  are  most  readily  acces¬ 
sible  in  complete  form.  The  passages  from  the  Dialogues 
of  Plato  are  from  the  second  Jowett  edition,  those  from 
Aristotle  and  Thucydides  are  from  the  first  Jowett  edi¬ 
tions,  and  most  other  passages  from  the  Bohn  Library 
editions.  Where  other  translations  have  been  used,  due 
credit  has  been  given.  At  the  expense  of  no  little  variety, 
it  has  seemed  best  to  preserve  the  punctuation  and  spell¬ 
ing  of  the  translations  used.  Where,  in  deference  to 
modern  standards  of  taste,  it  has  been  necessary  to  ex¬ 
punge  passages  or  phrases,  the  omission  has  been  indi¬ 
cated  by  asterisks.  This  necessity  is  regrettable,  for  in 
the  passages  expunged  are  very  frequently  indicated  some 
of  the  most  characteristic  aspects  of  ancient  education ; 
but  in  a  text  for  general  use  such  omissions  cannot  well 
be  avoided. 

The  scope  of  the  book  does  not  include  any  specific 
account  of  Roman  education  after  the  Christianization  of 
the  Empire.  As  being  more  vitally  connected  with  early 


viii  Preface 

Christian  and  mediaeval  education,  the  presentation  of 
such  sources  is  reserved  for  a  future  volume. 

The  author  desires  to  express  his  obligation  to  Messrs. 
Bell  and  Sons,  publishers  of  the  Bohn  Library  series,  for 
the  privilege  of  making  very  liberal  use  of  their  publica¬ 
tions ;  to  Messrs.  Little,  Brown  and  Company  for  the 
privilege  of  using  the  selection  from  Professor  Goodwin’s 
edition  of  Plutarch’s  Morals ;  to  Messrs.  Butterworth  and 
Company  for  the  privilege  of  using  the  selection  from 
their  publication  on  Roman  Law ;  and  to  Messrs.  Macmil¬ 
lan  and  Company  for  the  privilege  of  using  the  extract 
from  Jebb’s  Attic  Orator:  also  to  Professor  Franklin  T. 
Baker  and  Mr.  Theodore  C.  Mitchill  for  assistance  in  the 
revision  of  the  text,  and  to  Mr.  Rudolph  I.  Coffee  for 
the  preparation  of  the  Index. 

PAUL  MONROE. 

New  York, 

September  26,  1901. 


CONTENTS 


PART  I 

GREEK  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 
Old  Greek  Education 

PAG« 

Periods  of  Greek  Education . 

Education  of  the  Homeric  Period . 

The  City  State  as  the  Basis  of  Old  Greek  Education  . 

The  Sources  relating  to  the  Historic  Period  of  Old  Greek  Edu 

cation . 

Spartan  Education  ....... 

Athenian  Education  ....... 

Selections  from 

The  Life  of  Lycurgus  by  Plutarch  .... 

Pericles’  Funeral  Oration ,  from  Thucydides 

The  Protagoras  of  Plato . 

The  Ephebic  Oath  ....... 

CHAPTER  II 

Education  of  Women  in  Greece 

Period  and  Source  ...••••••  34 

The  Education  of  Women  . . 36 

Selections  from 

The  Econo7nics  of  Xenophon  ......  37 


IX 


X 


Contents 


CHAPTER  III 
The  New  Greek  Education 

PAGE 


The  Period . . .51 

The  Sources . *54 

Changes  in  Education  .........  58 

The  Sophists . 60 

Literary  Education  .........  64 

Selections  from 

The  Clouds  of  Aristophanes  .  .  .  .  .  .  .66^/ 

The  Oration  Against  the  Sophists ,  by  Isocrates  .  .  91 

The  Oration  On  the  Exchange  of  Estates,  by  Isocrates  .  .  95 

The  Republic  of  Plato  .  . . .  109  ; 


CHAPTER  IV 

Greek  Educational  Theorists:  The  Historical  View 


The  Period  and  the  Sources  .  . . 116 

The  Problem  of  the  Theorists . 116 

Socrates . 118 

Xenophon . 120 

Selections  from 

The  Cyropcedia  of  Xenophon . 122 


CHAPTER  V 

Greek  Educational  Theorists:  The  Philosophical 


View 

The  Period  and  the  Authority . 129 

The  Republic  ..........  130 

The  Laws  . . 134 

Selections  from 

The  Republic  of  Plato  ........  138^ 

The  Laws  of  Plato 


222 


Contents 


xi 


CHAPTER  VI 

Greek  Educational  Theorists:  The  Scientific  View 

PAGE 

The  Period  and  the  Authority . 265 

The  Politics . 268 

Selections  from 

The  Politics  of  Aristotle . 272 


CHAPTER  VII 

The  Later  Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education 

The  Period . 

The  Sources . 

The  Philosophical  Schools . 

The  University  of  Athens . 

Selections  from 

The  Decrees  of  the  Athenian  Senate  .... 
The  Decrees  of  the  Athenian  Assembly 
The  Panegyric  on  Saint  Basil,  by  Gregory  Nazienzen  . 
The  Morals  of  Plutarch . 

PART  II 


ROMAN  EDUCATION 
CHAPTER  I 

Early  Roman  Education  in  General 

Periods  of  Roman  Education . 327 

Sources . 328 

The  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  .......  330 

Ideals  of  Roman  Education . .  33 1 

The  Subject-matter,  Method,  and  Organization  of  Early  Roman 

Education . 333 

Selections  from 

The  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables . 334 

The  De  Oratore  of  Cicero  .  345 


Xll 


Contents 


CHAPTER  II 


The  Second  Period  of  Early  Roman  Education 


PAGE 

346 

346 


The  Period  . . 

The  Sources  ......... 

The  Introduction  of  Schools  and  the  Hellenization  of  Education  .  347 

Selections  from 

The  Lives  of  Eminent  Grammarians ,  by  Suetonius  .  .  349 

The  Lives  of  Eminent  Rhetoricians ,  by  Suetonius  .  .  *352 


CHAPTER  III 

Contrast  between  the  Earlier  and  the  Later 
Periods  of  Roman  Education 

The  Periods  .......... 

The  Sources  ;  their  Interpretation  ...... 

The  Contrast  as  to  Aim,  Subject-matter,  Method,  and  Organi¬ 
zation  . . 

Selections  from 

The  Bacchides  of  Plautus  ....... 

The  Dialogue  on  Oratory ,  by  Tacitus . 


355 

356 

358 

360- 

361 


CHAPTER  IV 

Survival  of  Early  Roman  Educational  Ideals  in 

the  Later  Period 

The  Sources . 

The  Stoic  Philosophy  . . 

Summary  of  these  Survivals . 

Selections  from 

The  Life  of  Atticus,  by  Cornelius  Nepos 

The  Life  of  Augustus,  by  Suetonius  .... 

The  Life  of  Agricola,  by  Tacitus . 

The  Meditations  of  Marcus  Aurelius  .... 


37i 

373 

374 

375 

375 

376 

377 


Contents 


•  •  • 


xm 


CHAPTER  V 


The  Third  Period:  The  Hellenized  Roman  Education 


PAGE 


The  Period . 

The  Sources . 

Purpose  and  Content  of  Education  of  this  Period 
The  Organization  of  Education  .... 
The  Method  of  Education  ..... 

The  Education  of  Women . 

The  Decadence  of  Roman  Education  . 

Selections  from 

The  Satires  and  the  Epistles  of  Horace 
The  Epigrams  of  Martial  .... 

The  Epistles  of  Seneca  .... 

The  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Ccesars ,  by  Suetonius 
Musonius  ....... 

The  Letters  of  Pliny  the  Younger 

The  Satires  of  Juvenal  .... 


CHAPTER  VI 


.  386 

•  387 

•  39° 

•  390 

•  393 

•  394 

•  394 

•  396 

•  399 

.  400 

.  400 

.  401 
.  406 
.  416 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Roman  Education 


The  Period  and  the  Authority 

The  Source  ...... 

Summary  of  the  Dialogue  on  Oratory  . 
Selections  from 

The  Dialogue  on  Oratory ,  by  Cicero 

CHAPTER  VII 


.  421 

•  423 
.  425 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education 

The  Period  and  the  Authority . 

The  Source . 

General  Character  of  the  Educational  Content  of  the  Institutes 
Selections  from 

The  Institutes  of  Quintilian . 


445 

446 

447 


PART  I 


GREEK  EDUCATION 

I.  OLD  GREEK  EDUCATION 

The  Periods  of  Greek  Education  may  be  characterized  at 
that  of  the  Old  Greek  Education  and  that  of  the  New 
Greek  Education.  The  Periclean  Age,  or  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century  b.c.,  forms  the  dividing  line.  However, 
the  characteristic  changes  marking  the  transition  from  the 
old  to  the  new  are  not  simply  political,  but  are  manifold, 
and  can  be  understood  in  respect  to  education  only  by 
a  study  of  such  sources  as  those  presented  in  the  third 
section  of  this  book.  Each  of  these  general  periods 
may  be  subdivided.  The  earlier  one  includes,  first,  the 
Homeric  period,  and  second,  the  historic  period  down  to 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  The  second  general 
period  includes,  first,  the  period  of  transition  in  educa¬ 
tional,  religious,  and  moral  ideas,  this  being  the  time  of 
philosophical  activity  and  of  development  of  formal  educa¬ 
tion.  The  second  of  these  special  periods  may  be  dated 
from  the  Macedonian  conquest  toward  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  b.c.  By  the  opening  of  this  last  period 
the  philosophical  schools  have  become  definitely  formu¬ 
lated,  and  during  the  period  are  organized  into  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Athens.  In  her  intellectual  life  Greece  now 
becomes  cosmopolitan,  and  ceases  to  have  distinctive 
characteristics  aside  from  the  philosophical  schools. 


B 


i 


2  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

The  Education  of  the  Homeric  Period  was  that  of  a  primi¬ 
tive  people.  It  was  an  education  that  had  little  or  no 
place  for  definite  instruction  of  a  literary  character,  but 
was  essentially  a  training  process  in  definite  practical 
activities.  Though  noble  youths  are  spoken  of  as  having 
been  given  a  course  of  instruction  in  arms  and  martial 
exercises,  and  Achilles  as  having  had  instruction  in  music, 
the  healing  art,  and  even  in  rhetoric  ( Iliad ,  IX.  414),  this 
instruction  amounted  to  little  more  than  a  direct  training 
by  imitation,  into  which  entered  little  or  no  instruction,  as 
later  distinguished  by  the  Greeks.  The  education  of  this 
period,  as  with  all  primitive  peoples,  consisted  in  that 
practical  training  which  prepared  for  the  immediate  duties 
of  life.  Such  training  was  given  in  the  home  for  the 
humbler  needs  of  life,  —  those  connected  with  the  securing 

of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  The  remainder  of  their 

✓ 

education  was  the  training  received  in  council,  wars,  and 
marauding  expeditions,  for  the  more  general  public  ser¬ 
vices  demanded.  This  constituted  the  higher  aspect  of 
their  education.  The  Homeric  poems  are  a  fertile  source 
of  information  on  this  topic,  though  only  in  a  very  general 
way.  In  the  Homeric  period  educational  institutions  were 
not  distinct;  the  council  and  the  camp  furnished  all  higher 
education.  The  ideal  of  education  was  twofold  :  the  man 
of  valor,  typified  by  Achilles ;  the  man  of  wisdom,  by 
Odysseus.  The  characteristics  of  these  ideals  are  found 
throughout  the  narratives  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey , 
though  these  passages  are  so  general  and  so  remote  in 
character  from  education,  as  technically  understood,  that  it 
is  impossible  to  make  brief  selections  that  would  be  to  the 
present  purpose.  The  following  selections,  giving  descrip¬ 
tions  of  council,  or  battle,  or  of  the  man  of  bravery,  or 


Old  Greek  Education 


3 


man  of  wisdom,  may,  nevertheless,  be  found  helpful  as  an 
introduction  to  the  further  study  of  the  historic  type  of 
Old  Greek  education:  the  Iliad ,  I.  52-302;  II.  35-380, 
445-482;  IX.  50-180;  X.  335-579;  XI. 617-804;  XVIII. 
245-318;  XIX.  40-275. 

The  Character  and  Organization  of  Old  Greek  Education 

is  determined  by  the  city  state.  This  institution  furnished 
the  basis  and  ideals  of  education,  as  did  the  family  with 
the  Chinese  and  the  theocracy  with  the  Hebrews.  Even 
in  the  Homeric  period  there  were  evidences  of  the  funda¬ 
mental  importance  of  the  city  state,  though  it  had  not  com¬ 
pletely  taken  shape  at  that  time  ( Iliad ,  XVIII.  490).  In 
the  historic  period,  on  the  other  hand,  it  furnished  the  key 
to  the  understanding  of  the  educational  development  of 
the  Hellenic  people.  The  city  state  grew  up  by  the  suc¬ 
cessive  amalgamation  of  patriarchal  families  into  village 
communities,  of  village  communities  into  phratries  or 
brotherhoods,  of  phratries  into  tribes,  and  of  tribes  into 
cities.  The  bond  which  held  the  family  together  was 
dominantly  that  of  blood  relationship.  The  village  de¬ 
pended  more  on  economic  interests  ;  the  phratry,  upon 
religious  ties;  the  tribe,  upon  the  communal  ownership 
of  land.  So  too  the  city  state  in  its  beginning  as  a  union 
of  tribes  was  held  together  by  this  descent  from  the  old 
families  and  by  possession  of  land.  This  “  ancient  wealth 
and  worth  ”  constituted  the  nobility  of  the  Grecian  citizen. 
Citizenship  was  confined  at  first  to  the  heads  of  these 
noble  families,  but  in  time  expanded  until  inclusive  of  all 
freemen.  Though  economic  independence  and  free  birth 
were  always  essential,  this  ideal  of  nobility  came  in  time 
to  consist  less  and  less  of  wealth  and  noble  birth,  and 
more  and  more  of  certain  traits  of  character  that  could  be 


4  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

produced  by  education.  Nobility  now  became  virtue  or 
worth.  The  Grecian  idea  of  virtue  underwent  develop¬ 
ment,  and  this  development  constituted  the  basis  of  the 
historic  growth  of  these  educational  ideals  and  practices. 
Virtue  consisted  at  first  almost  wholly  of  physical  bravery 
and  a  subordination  of  individual  motives  to  the  social 
welfare  or  demands.  But  in  time  it  became  spiritualized 
and  intellectualized,  and  this  growing  intellectuality  pro-$ 
duced  the  literary  element  in  education.  With  the  transi¬ 
tion  to  the  period  of  new  Greek  education  the  literary 
element  became  supreme,  at  least  with  the  Ionic  Greeks; 
yet,  whether  small  or  great,  it  formed  but  a  part  of  the  Greek 
ideal  of  virtue  or  nobility.  This  idea  of  nobility  is,  then, 
the  basis  of  their  fundamental  social  institution,  the  city 
state.  The  possession  of  nobility  was  the  prerequisite  to 
membership  in  that  institution.  The  dominant  purpose  of 
every  prospective  Grecian  citizen  was  to  attain  this  nobility 
or  virtue.  While  economic  independence,  or  wealth,  and 
membership  in  the  old  families,  or  birth,  were  essential,  all 
these  could,  in  the  later  periods,  be  acquired.  The  intel¬ 
lectual  and  spiritual  elements,  the  latter  consisting  largely 
of  aesthetic  appreciation,  could  be  obtained  only  by  educa¬ 
tion.  Nobility  or  virtue,  whatever  was  the  stage  of  its 
development,  constituted  the  basis  of  social  organization, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  ideal  of  achievement  of  every 
citizen  or  prospective  citizen.  This  idea  of  virtue,  or 
nobility,  then,  constituted  the  aim  or  purpose  of  education. 
The  development  of  the  organization,  means,  and  method 
of  education  followed  the  evolution  of  this  idea  of  nobility 
or  virtue  and  that  of  the  city  state.  This  development 
constitutes  the  history  of  Greek  education. 

The  Sources  relating  to  the  Historic  Period  of  Old  Greek 


Old  Greek  Education 


5 


Education  are  rather  meagre  if  the  selection  be  limited 
to  direct  discussion  of  education  in  a  technical  sense. 
The  fullest  are  those  which  relate  to  Spartan  education. 
This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  old  education  was 
characteristic  of  Sparta  throughout  its  history,  for  Sparta 
never  accepted  the  new  educational  ideas  or  tolerated  the 
new  practices.  Hence  there  are  many  authorities  on  the 
'*  old  education  as  found  at  Sparta,  but  comparatively  few 
detailed  discussions  of  the  same  period  at  Athens.  Sparta, 
however,  offers  the  best  type  of  the  old  education,  though 
of  a  much  more  extreme  type  than  that  found  anywhere  else 
in  Greece,  unless  Crete  be  an  exception.  The  account  of 
Spartan  education  is  from  Plutarch’s  Life  of  Lycurgus , 
that  being  the  fullest  description  of  these  educational  insti¬ 
tutions.  It  could  be  supplemented  by  passages  drawn  from 
the  Morals  of  Plutarch,  as  well  as  by  briefer  references 
from  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Xenophon,  Plato,  and  Aris¬ 
totle.  Plutarch  was  a  citizen  of  Boeotia,  and  lived  about 
50  to  120  a.d.  His  Parallel  Lives  were  written  during 
the  first  years  of  the  second  Christian  century.  Plutarch 
was  a  moralist  rather  than  a  historian,  and  was  more  con¬ 
cerned  in  emphasizing  the  morals  of  an  incident  or  life 
than  in  the  accuracy  of  his  facts.  Hence  his  value  as  a 
historian  depends  upon  the  sources  which  he  uses.  In  the 
Life  of  Lycurgus  these  are  chiefly  subsequent  to  Aristotle; 
Plato,  Xenophon,  and  three  of  the  minor  poets  are  his  only 
earlier  authorities.  His  best  authority  is  Aristotle. 

However,  the  errors  in  the  Life  of  Lycurgus  relate  to 
statements  that  are  not  essential  to  the  discussion  of  edu¬ 
cation.  They  are  for  the  most  part  connected  with  the 
question  of  the  character  of  Lycurgus  and  the  division  of 
the  land.  The  question  whether  Lycurgus  was  an  historical 


6  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

personage  does  not  affect  the  value  of  the  present  narra¬ 
tive.  There  is  no  agreement  on  this  point  among  modern 
historians.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  quite  general 
agreement  that  Plutarch’s  account  of  the  division  of  the 
land  is  without  historic  basis.  But  there  is  no  question  as 
to  the  characteristic  social  and  educational  institutions. 
The  testimony  from  ancient  authorities  on  these  points  is 
uniform  and  voluminous.  As  to  the  time  of  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  these  educational  institutions,  there  is  also  substan¬ 
tial  agreement.  Though  the  writers  make  no  mention  of 
Lycurgus  as  the  author  of  these  changes  which  were  re¬ 
sponsible  for  the  characteristic  Spartan  institutions,  both 
Thucydides  and  Herodotus  refer  to  these  changes,  as 
having  taken  place  in  the  ninth  century  b.c.  This  is  the 
period  to  which  Lycurgus  is  assigned  by  other  writers, 
including  Plutarch. 

The  educational  and  social  institutions  of  Sparta  were 
peculiarly  her  own,  for,  while  they  form  the  best  type 
of  the  old  Greek  education,  they  were  not  a  common 
possession  even  among  the  Dorians.  The  nearest  ap¬ 
proach  to  them  was  in  Crete ;  but  here  they  were  more 
communistic  and  of  but  brief  duration.  At  Sparta,  on 
the  other  hand,  this  education  was  coincident  with 
Spartan  political  power.  While  there  was  evidently  a 
marked  decline  in  these  institutions  by  the  time  of  Aris¬ 
totle,  they  were  yet  characteristic  and  influential.  By  the 
third  century  b.c.,  they  had  fallen  into  decay,  when  Agis 
(244-240  b.c.)  and  Cleomenes  (236-222  b.c.)  attempted 
their  restoration.  With  the  coming  of  the  Roman  power 
these  old  ideals  ceased  to  have  any  influence  whatever, 
and  the  old  institutions  became  obsolete. 

It  is  the  new  Greek  education  that  was  typical  of 


Old  Greek  Education 


7 


Athenian  life,  hence  the  references  to  the  old  education 
as  it  existed  at  Athens  are  not  so  numerous  or  detailed. 
As  the  literary  age  was  essentially  that  of  the  new  educa¬ 
tion,  the  sources  referring  to  the  old  period  are  from 
writers  that  lived  in  the  new.  The  best  complete  descrip¬ 
tion  of  the  old  education  is  the  brief  passage  from  the 
Protagoras  of  Plato.  The  Protagoras  belongs  in  the  early 
group  of  Plato’s  writings,  dating  probably  from  the  first 
decade  of  the  fourth  century  b.c.  The  scene  is  supposed 
to  have  been  laid  about  425  b.c.  Protagoras  was  the  first 
of  the  Sophists  at  Athens,  where  he  began  to  teach  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  b.c.  The  passage  given  is 
merely  incidental  to  the  main  trend  of  the  argument  in 
the  dialogue.  The  discussion  between  Socrates  and  Pro¬ 
tagoras  is  concerning  virtue.  The  substance  of  Socrates’ 
argument  is  that  virtue  is  unified  because  it  reduces  to  a 
common  principle,  that  common  principle  being  knowl¬ 
edge.  If  this  is  true,  then  virtue  is  teachable.  In  regard 
to  this  last  point,  the  position  taken  by  disputants  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  dialogue  is  reversed.  The  passage 
given  is  taken  from  a  lengthy  speech  of  Protagoras,  in 
which  he  argues  that  virtue  is  teachable.  One  evidence 
he  cites  is  this  general  account  of  old  Athenian  education, 
the  aim  of  which  was  substantially  the  inculcation  of  vir¬ 
tue.  The  account  is  very  concise  and  covers  the  entire 
scope  of  early  education.  This  account  can  be  supple¬ 
mented  by  passages  found  in  selections  relating  to  later 
periods,  notably  the  contest  between  the  old  and  new 
education  in  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes,  in  the  ideal 
education  advocated  in  the  Republic ,  and  in  the  scientific 
exposition  of  the  Politics  of  Aristotle. 

The  latest  period  of  education  mentioned  in  the  Protag - 


8  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

oras  is  that  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  state.  The 
ideal  of  this  education  is  given  in  the  oath  which  the 
Ephebes  were  required  to  take,  here  given  as  the  second 
selection.  The  third  selection  is  the  famous  funeral  ora¬ 
tion  of  Pericles  written  by  Thucydides.  This  is  one  of 
the  best  presentations  of  the  ideal  governing  the  Athenian 
people,  and  indicates  quite  clearly  the  spirit  and  purpose 
of  their  education.  Both  Pericles  and  Thucydides  were 
among  the  earlier  products  of  the  new  Greek  education  — 
at  least,  both  were  profoundly  influenced  by  it.  The 
speeches  of  Pericles,  especially  those  reported  by  Thucyd¬ 
ides,  are  clear  samples  of  the  results  of  the  new  education, 
showing  evidently  the  influence  of  the  rhetorical  schools. 
But  while  the  form  of  the  speech  is  a  product  of  new  con¬ 
ditions,  its  content  is  one  of  the  best  presentations  of 
the  ideals  of  the  old.  The  lives  and  deeds  celebrated  in 
the  panegyric  were  the  product  of  the  old  education.  The 
passage  is  especially  valuable  as  giving  an  analysis  of 
those  conditions  which  made  possible  the  growth  of  the 
new  type  of  education.  Even  under  the  old  regime  there 
was  a  place  for  the  individuality  of  the  citizen  at  Athens 
as  there  had  not  been  elsewhere  in  Greece ;  and  while  this 
individualism  was  wholly  subject  to  the  interests  of  the 
city  state,  it  at  least  had  a  place  under  conditions  which 
provided  for  its  development.  Thucydides  was  born 
about  471  b.c.  and  lived  until  the  opening  of  the  next 
century.  He  received  rhetorical  training  from  some  of 
the  earliest  Sophists,  Gorgias  among  others,  but  in  the 
severity  and  conservatism  of  his  ideas  he  belonged  to  the 
earlier  period.  The  oration  given  is  most  probably  his 
own  work  and  not  that  of  Pericles;  if  of  Pericles,  it  is 
rather  the  compilation  of  a  number  of  speeches.  Though 


Old  Greek  Education 


9 


it  may  be  designed  for  the  reader  of  the  history,  rather 
than  for  the  audience  of  occasion,  it  reflects  accurately  the 
spirit  of  such  occasions  and  the  character  of  the  times. 
While  Pericles,  both  in  his  training  and  in  his  life,  was 
more  clearly  than  Thucydides  a  product  of  the  newer  edu¬ 
cation,  it  would  not  be  inconsistent  that  on  such  an  occasion 
he  should  express  the  dominant  characteristics  of  the  old. 
Irrespective  of  its  authorship,  this  oration  can  be  taken 
as  an  exposition  of  the  ideals  and  results  of  the  old 
education. 

Spartan  Education  was  almost  identical  with  Spartan  life 
in  general.  Sparta  was  practically  a  military  camp  organ- 

p 

ized  for  the  training  of  warriors.  The  Spartans  were  a 
small  group  of  conquerors  among  a  large  subject  popula¬ 
tion.  Their  national  existence  depended  upon  the  military 
excellence  of  their  citizens,  and  their  whole  life  was  organ¬ 
ized  to  this  end.  The  home  was  practically  abolished,  and 
for  it  was  substituted  the  camp  or  school.  While  there 
was  no  definite  school,  all  of  childhood  was  a  schooling, 
definitely  systematized  for  educational  purposes;  and  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  adults,  aside  from  their  military 
life,  was  the  education  of  the  younger  generation.  This 
education  was  almost  wholly  physical  and  moral.  It  was 
narrow  but  intense,  producing  the  highest  and  most  per¬ 
manent  results  that  have  ever  been  attained  along  these 
restricted  lines.  Above  all,  it  meant  the  production  of 
individuals  wholly  subject  to  the  state.  Next  to  this  idea 
of  the  complete  subordination  of  the  welfare  of  the  indi¬ 
vidual  to  that  of  the  community,  came  the  Spartan  ideal  of 
physical  bravery,  power,  and  endurance.  Patriotism  and 
sacrifice  of  the  individual  to  the  common  welfare  were 
inculcated  throughout  life  and  in  every  incident  and  inter- 


io  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

est  in  life.  The  physical  results  were  obtained  through  the 
definite  training  that  was  a  substitute  for  all  school  work. 
This  rigid  discipline  began  from  the  day  of  birth,  but 
for  the  first  seven  years  the  boy  remained  in  the  charge  of 
the  mother.  Thereafter  he  was  in  the  charge  of  selected 
state  officials  that  were  responsible  for  his  physical  and 
moral  education.  The  boys  were  trained  in  companies, 
lived  in  public  barracks,  and  ate  at  common  tables. 
These  companies  were  under  immediate  command  of  boys 
of  an  older  age,  though  the  general  supervision  of  adults 
was  never  absent.  The  training  consisted  of  a  definite 
system  of  exercises  and  games,  of  a  more  military  char¬ 
acter  after  the  age  of  twelve,  and  wholly  so  from  the 
eighteenth  or  twentieth  year,  during  which  time  the  youth 
lived  in  barracks  or  was  engaged  in  actual  military  service. 
In  time  of  peace  this  service  was  in  the  nature  of  police  or 
garrison  duties.  Only  at  the  thirtieth  year  were  the  youths 
admitted  into  full  citizenship.  The  moral  training  aimed 
to  produce  self-control  in  action  and  speech,  endurance, 
reverence,  a  spirit  of  patriotic  self-sacrifice,  dignity  of 
action,  and  subjection  of  all  emotional  expression.  Such 
results  were  obtained  by  a  constant  association  with  others 
of  the  same  age  under  the  close  supervision  of  the  elders 
at  their  meals,  at  their  games,  in  public  dances  of  military 
character,  in  religious  services  of  choral  character,  in 
their  sports,  especially  hunting,  and  in  their  barrack  life. 
After  the  age  of  twelve,  boys  were  trained  to  provide  for 
their  own  wants  through  the  obligation  resting  upon 
them  of  contributing  to  the  common  mess  and  to  the 
few  comforts  allowed  in  their  sleeping  quarters.  In  this 
elaborate  state  education  there  was  little  provision  for 
the  intellectual  element  save  as  it  was  incidental  in  the 


Old  Greek  Education 


II 


physical  and  moral  training  indicated  above.  There  was 
practically  no  literary  instruction.  In  the  later  centuries, 
however,  it  was  customary,  or  at  least  not  unusual,  for  read¬ 
ing  and  writing  to  be  taught,  though  aside  from  the  state 
education.  Otherwise  the  intellectual  training  was  received 
in  committing  to  memory  and  mastering  the  Laws  of  Lycur- 
gus,  —  these  being  handed  down  from  one  generation  to 
another  through  several  centuries  in  the  verbal  form, — 
the  national  hymns  and  choruses,  and  later  the  poems  of 
the  few  native  writers  held  in  repute. 

As  with  all  the  Greeks  the  content  of  Spartan  educa¬ 
tion  was  included  in  music,  gymnastic,  and  dancing. 
But  music  was  a  much  narrower  term  than  it  came  to  be 
elsewhere,  and  never  contained  more  than  the  rudiments 
of  a  literary  education. 

The  details  of  this  system  of  education  are  given  in 
full  in  the  selection  from  Plutarch.  This  education,  intro¬ 
duced  in  the  ninth  century  b.c.  was  largely  responsible 
for  the  military  power  of  Sparta.  It  lost  much  of  its 
rigidity  after  the  Peloponnesian  War,  and  ceased  to  have 
any  force  by  the  opening  of  the  second  century  b.c. 

Athenian  Education  of  the  old  period  was  similar  to 
the  Spartan  education  in  its  simplicity  of  aim  and  narrow¬ 
ness  of  content,  but  not  in  its  organization  or  in  its  sta¬ 
tionary  character.  While  the  details  of  Spartan  education 
were  quite  full,  the  sources  on  early  Athenian  education 
leave  much  to  be  desired.  The  selections  from  the  speech 
of  Protagoras  give  a  general  outline,  but  few  details. 
Education  was  public  only  in  so  far  as  it  was  subject  to 
close  state  supervision  of  the  general  results  to  be  ex¬ 
pected  of  home  training  or  individual  private  institutions. 
It  could  be  given  in  the  home,  but  was  more  commonly 


12  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

obtained  in  private  schools.  In  contradistinction  to  the 
general  authority  and  responsibility  of  adults  at  Sparta, 
a  law  of  Solon  forbade  any  adult  save  teachers  and  peda¬ 
gogues  entering  the  school.  There  was  not  the  training 
in  large  groups  as  at  Sparta,  though  the  ability  to  act  in 
common  and  the  community  sentiment  were  developed 
to  some  extent  through  the  religious  chorus,  dance,  and 
procession.  Athenian  education  was  neither  so  severe 
nor  so  prolonged  as  that  at  Sparta,  and,  after  the  fifteenth 
or  sixteenth  year,  it  permitted  much  greater  freedom. 

As  elsewhere  in  Greece,  formal  education  included 
music  and  gymnastic,  perhaps  with  dancing  as  a  third 
branch,  though  it  was  but  a  combination  of  the  other 
two.  Gymnastic  was  less  important  and  less  military  in 
character  than  at  Sparta.  The  purpose  of  gymnastic  was 
the  development  of  a  sound  and  beautiful  physique,  not 
simply  the  making  of  a  warrior.  Beauty  and  grace,  quite 
as  well  as  power  of  endurance,  entered  into  the  aims. 
The  exercises  were  less  rigid  and  more  varied,  consisting 
in  running,  discus  throwing,  javelin  casting,  and  wrestling, 
to  which  should  be  added  dancing  as  a  culmination  and 
combination  of  the  other  phases  of  their  training.  By 
these  exercises  there  were  to  be  obtained  health  and 
strength,  beauty  and  grace,  and,  in  addition,  the  self- 
possession  and  dignity  of  bearing  that  were  but  the  out¬ 
ward  manifestations  of  the  moral  results  of  this  physical 
training.  Music  included  the  remainder  of  their  formal 
education.  But  even  in  this  early  period  music  was  a 
much  broader  term  than  at  Sparta.  It  always  included 
the  literary  element,  at  least  reading,  writing,  and  the 
mastery  of  the  Homeric  writings.  Later,  other  national 
literature  was  introduced,  so  that  this  literary  education 


Old  Greek  Education 


13 


would  mean  a  familiarity  with  national  myths,  religious 
customs,  and  laws.  While  music  was  a  term  applicable  to 
all  the  interests  of  the  nine  muses,  it  meant  music  in  the 
restricted  sense  as  well.  Along  with  reading  went  instruc¬ 
tion  in  playing  the  lyre  and  in  singing,  for  the  three  were 
combined  to  a  considerable  extent.  It  is  not  until  the 
later  period  that  the  literary  element  becomes  the  promi¬ 
nent  factor,  and  that  the  use  of  musical  instruments  other 
than  the  simple  one  for  accompanying  the  voice  was  intro¬ 
duced.  The  method  of  these  schools  was  little  more  than 
simple  training  through  imitation.  Of  elaborate  literary 
instruction  there  was  none.  The  work  in  literature  con¬ 
sisted  in  memorizing  the  Homeric  poems  and  in  repeating 
them  with  appropriate  musical  accompaniments.  At  fif¬ 
teen  and  sixteen  the  boy  devoted  the  greater  part  of  his 
time  to  gymnastic,  and  passed  from  the  palestra  into 
the  gymnasium  for  advanced  physical  training,  association 
with  adults  in  the  agora  being  substituted  for  the  music 
school.  At  eighteen  the  ephebic  stage  was  reached, 
when  the  oath  given  in  the  selections  (p.  33)  was  admin¬ 
istered,  and  the  youth  entered  on  the  last  stage  of  appren¬ 
ticeship  for  citizenship.  This  period  included  a  two 
years’  military  service  in  guard  and  police  duty,  mostly  in 
the  rural  regions.  At  twenty  he  was  admitted  to  full 
citizenship. 

While  this  education  was  more  literary  in  character  than 
the  Spartan,  its  dominant  motive  was  moral  and  social. 
Its  whole  purpose  was  preparation  for  active  Athenian 
citizenship,  but  a  citizenship  which  demanded  political  as 
well  as  military  services.  The  influence  of  these  political 
obligations  upon  the  character  of  the  youth  and  the  citizen 
is  emphasized  in  the  oration  of  Pericles.  The  dominant 


14  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

moral  purpose  of  the  musical  and  literary  training  is  em¬ 
phasized  in  the  argument  of  Protagoras.  The  intellectual 
or  rational  element  had  little  place.  The  old  myths  and 
legends  formed  the  basis  of  the  work  of  the  music  schools, 
and  the  inculcation  of  reverence  for  them  gave  the  chief 
reason  for  the  existence  of  these  schools.  It  was  not  in¬ 
tellectual  power,  but  reverence,  loyalty,  and  temperance 
in  word  and  deed,  that  constituted  the  educational  aim. 
That  these  results  were  to  be  obtained,  not  by  complete 
suppression  of  the  individual  but  by  his  development,  is 
the  key-note  to  the  oration  of  Pericles.  But  it  was  in  no 
sense  the  individualism  of  the  later  age  in  the  dawn  of 
which  Pericles  himself  lived ;  it  was  an  individualism 
gained  through  participation  in  all  social  activities,  politi¬ 
cal,  religious,  and  military,  and  always  under  the  dominance 
of  a  rigid  public  opinion  upholding  the  traditional  social 
morality.  The  freedom  of  the  individual  did  not  consist 
in  the  liberty  to  determine  his  moral  standards,  his  reli¬ 
gious  ideas,  or  his  civic  or  social  activities.  In  respect  to 
the  means  for  attaining  to  these  recognized  and  approved 
standards  there  was  also  freedom,  as  we  have  already  seen. 
Hence  the  wide  divergence  from  Sparta  in  the  organiza¬ 
tion  and  rigidity  of  detail  in  education. 

Though  the  old  education  passed  into  the  new  practically 
with  the  beginning  of  the  literary  period  at  Athens,  the 
general  nature  of  the  elementary  education  remained  much 
the  same.  Hence  in  the  selections  from  the  later  period 
there  is  much  evidence  relating  to  the  earlier.  In  Aris¬ 
tophanes  the  old  is  set  over  in  contrast  against  the  new. 
Aristotle  writes,  not  as  an  idealist,  but  as  a  scientist,  ex¬ 
plaining  the  nature  of  and  the  reason  for  many  of  the  old 
practices.  For  this  reason  there  is  in  his  discussion  a  clear 


Old  Greek  Education  15 

exposition  of  certain  phases  of  the  old  practices.  In  these 
respects  the  later  selections  will,  therefore,  furnish  addi¬ 
tional  material  relating  to  the  simple  education  of  this 
early  period. 

Selections  from  the  Life  of  Lycurgus  by  Plutarch  1 

...  It  was  not  left  to  the  father  to  rear  what  children 
he  pleased,  but  he  was  obliged  to  carry  the  child  to  a  place 
called  Lesche,2  to  be  examined  by  the  most  ancient  men  of 
the  tribe  who  were  assembled  there.  If  it  were  strong  and 
well  proportioned,  they  gave  orders  for  its  education,  and 
assigned  it  one  of  the  nine  thousand  shares  of  land;  but  if 
it  were  weakly  and  deformed,  they  ordered  it  to  be  thrown 
into  the  place  called  Apothetae,  which  is  a  deep  cavern 
near  the  mountain  Taygetus,  concluding  that  its  life  could 
be  no  advantage  either  to  itself  or  to  the  public,  since 
nature  had  not  given  it  at  first  any  strength  or  goodness 
of  constitution.  For  the  same  reason  the  women  did  not 
wash  their  new-born  infants  with  water,  but  with  wine, 
thus  making  some  trial  of  their  habit  of  body  —  imagining 
that  sickly  and  epileptic  children  sink  and  die  under  the 
experiment,  while  healthy  become  more  vigorous  and  hardy. 
Great  care  and  art  were  also  exerted  by  the  nurses ;  for,  as 
they  never  swathed  the  infants,  their  limbs  had  a  freer  turn 
and  their  countenances  a  more  liberal  air;  besides,  they 
used  them  to  any  sort  of  meat,  to  have  no  terrors  in  the 
dark,  nor  to  be  afraid  of  being  alone,  and  to  leave  all  ill- 
humour  and  unmanly  crying.  .  .  .  The  Spartan  children 
were  not  in  that  manner  under  tutors  purchased  or  hired 
with  money,  nor  were  the  parents  at  liberty  to  educate 
them  as  they  pleased ;  but  as  soon  as  they  were  seven 
years  old,  Lycurgus  ordered  them  to  be  enrolled  in  com¬ 
panies,  where  they  were  all  kept  under  the  same  order  and 
discipline,  and  had  their  exercises  and  recreations  in  com¬ 
mon.  He  who  showed  the  most  conduct  and  courage 
amongst  them  was  made  captain  of  the  company.  The 
rest  kept  their  eyes  upon  him,  obeyed  his  orders,  and  bore 


Care  of 
infants. 


Training  of 
the  Spartan 
boy. 


1  The  Langhorne  translation. 


2  Place  of  public  conversation. 


1 6  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


How  the 
boy  lived 
after  his 
twelfth  year. 


with  patience  the  punishments  he  inflicted ;  so  that  their 
whole  education  was  an  exercise  of  obedience.  The  old 
men  were  present  at  their  diversions,  and  often  suggested 
some  occasion  of  dispute  or  quarrel  that  they  might  ob¬ 
serve  with  exactness  the  spirit  of  each  and  their  firmness 
in  battle. 

As  for  learning,  they  had  just  what  was  absolutely  neces¬ 
sary.  All  the  rest  of  their  education  was  calculated  to  make 
them  subject  to  command,  to  endure  labour,  to  fight  and 
conquer.  They  added,  therefore,  to  their  discipline  as 
they  advanced  in  age  —  cutting  their  hair  very  close,  mak¬ 
ing  them  go  barefoot,  and  play,  for  the  most  part,  quite 
naked.  At  twelve  years  of  age  their  undergarment  was 
taken  away,  and  one  upper  one  a  year  allowed  them. 
Hence,  they  were  necessarily  dirty  in  their  persons,  and 
not  indulged  the  great  favour  of  baths  and  oil  except  on 
some  particular  days  of  the  year.  They  slept  in  compa¬ 
nies,  on  beds  made  of  the  tops  of  reeds  which  they  gath¬ 
ered  with  their  own  hands,  without  knives,  and  brought 
from  the  banks  of  the  Eurotas.1  In  winter  they  were  per¬ 
mitted  to  add  a  little  thistle-down,  as  that  seemed  to  have 
some  warmth  in  it. 

At  this  age  the  most  distinguished  amongst  them  became 
the  favourite  companions  of  the  elder ;  and  the  old  men  at¬ 
tended  more  constantly  their  places  of  exercise,  observing 
their  trials  of  strength  and  wit,  not  slightly  and  in  a  cur¬ 
sory  manner,  but  as  their  fathers,  guardians,  and  governors  ; 
so  that  there  was  neither  time  nor  place  where  persons  were 
wanting  to  instruct  and  chastise  them.  One  of  the  best  and 
ablest  men  in  the  city  was,  moreover,  appointed  inspector 
of  the  youth,  and  he  gave  the  command  of  each  company 
to  the  discreetest  and  most  spirited  of  those,  called  Irens. 
An  Iren  was  one  that  had  been  two  years  out  of  the  class 
of  boys ;  a  Melliren,  one  of  the  oldest  lads.  This  Iren 
then,  a  youth  twenty  years  old,  gives  orders  to  those  under 
his  command  in  their  little  battles,  and  has  them  to  serve 
him  at  his  house.  He  sends  the  oldest  of  them  to  fetch 
wood,  and  the  younger  to  gather  pot-herbs ;  these  they 
steal  where  they  can  find  them,  either  slily  getting  into 
gardens,  or  else  craftily  and  warily  creeping  to  the  common 

1  Chief  river  of  Laconia,  on  which  Sparta  was  situated. 


Old  Greek  Education 


l7 


tables.  But  if  any  one  be  caught,  he  is  severely  flogged  for 
negligence  or  want  of  dexterity.  They  steal,  too,  whatever 
victuals  they  possibly  can,  ingeniously  contriving  to  do  it 
when  persons  are  asleep  or  keep  but  indifferent  watch.  If 
they  are  discovered,  they  are  punished  not  only  with  whip¬ 
ping,  but  with  hunger;  indeed,  their  supper  is  but  slight 
at  all  times,  that,  to  fence  against  want,  they  may  be 
forced  to  exercise  their  courage  and  address.  This  is  the 
first  intention  of  their  spare  diet;  a  subordinate  one  is  to 
make  them  grow  tall.  For  when  the  animal  spirits  are 
not  too  much  oppressed  by  a  great  quantity  of  food,  which 
stretches  itself  out  in  breadth  and  thickness,  they  mount 
upwards  by  their  natural  lightness,  and  the  body  easily 
and  freely  shoots  up  in  height.  This  also  contributes  to 
make  them  handsome ;  for  thin  and  slender  habits  yield 
more  freely  to  nature,  which  then  gives  a  fine  proportion 
to  the  limbs,  whilst  the  heavy  and  gross  resist  her  by  their 
weight.  .  .  . 

The  boys  steal  with  so  much  caution,  that  one  of  them, 
having  conveyed  a  young  fox  under  his  garment,  suffered 
the  creature  to  tear  out  his  bowels  with  his  teeth  and 
claws,  choosing  rather  to  die  than  be  detected.  Nor  does 
this  appear  incredible,  if  we  consider  what  their  young 
men  can  endure  to  this  day ;  for  we  have  seen  many  of 
them  expire  under  the  lash  at  the  altar  of  Diana  Orthia. 

The  Iren,  reposing  himself  after  supper,  used  to  order 
some  of  the  boys  to  sing  a  song;  to  another  he  put  some 
question  which  required  a  judicious  answer,  for  example :  Methods  of 
“Who  was  the  best  man  in  the  city?”  or,  “What  he  instruction, 
thought  of  such  an  action  ?  ”  This  accustomed  them  from 
their  childhood  to  judge  of  the  virtues,  to  enter  into  the 
affairs  of  their  countrymen.  For  if  one  of  them  was  asked, 

“Who  is  a  good  citizen,  or  who  an  infamous  one?”  and 
hesitated  in  his  answer,  he  was  considered  as  a  boy  of  slow 
parts,  and  of  a  soul  that  would  not  aspire  to  honour.  The 
answer  was  likewise  to  have  a  reason  assigned  for  it,  and 
proof  conceived  in  few  words.  He  whose  account  of  the 
matter  was  wrong,  by  way  of  punishment  had  his  thumb 
bit  by  the  Iren.  The  old  men  and  magistrates  often  at¬ 
tended  these  little  trials,  to  see  whether  the  Iren  exercised 
his  authority  in  a  rational  and  proper  manner.  He  was 


c 


1 8  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Relation  of 
inspirer  and 
boy. 


Importance 
of  brief 
answers. 


permitted,  indeed,  to  inflict  the  penalties ;  but  when  the 
boys  were  gone,  he  was  to  be  chastised  himself  if  he  had 
punished  them  either  with  too  much  severity  or  remiss¬ 
ness. 

The  adopters  of  favourites  also  shared  both  in  the  hon¬ 
our  and  disgrace  of  their  boys  :  and  one  of  them  is  said 
to  have  been  mulcted  by  the  magistrates  because  the  boy 
whom  he  had  taken  into  his  affections  let  some  ungenerous 
word  or  cry  escape  him  as  he  was  fighting.  This  love  was 
so  honourable  and  in  so  much  esteem,  that  the  virgins,  too, 
had  their  lovers  amongst  the  most  virtuous  matrons.  A 
competition  of  affection  caused  no  misunderstanding,  but 
rather  a  mutual  friendship  between  those  that  had  fixed 
their  regards  upon  the  same  youth,  and  a  united  endeavour 
to  make  him  as  accomplished  as  possible. 

The  boys  were  also  taught  to  use  sharp  repartee,  sea¬ 
soned  with  humour,  and  whatever  they  said  was  to  be  con¬ 
cise  and  pithy.  For  Lycurgus,  as  we  have  before  observed, 
fixed  but  a  small  value  on  a  considerable  quantity  of  his 
iron  money ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  worth  of  speech  was 
to  consist  of  its  being  comprised  in  a  few  plain  words,  preg¬ 
nant  with  a  great  deal  of  sense;  and  he  contrived  that  by 
long  silence  they  might  learn  to  be  sententious  and  acute 
in  their  replies.  As  debauchery  often  causes  weakness 
and  sterility  in  the  body,  so  the  intemperance  of  the  tongue 
makes  conversation  empty  and  insipid.  King  Agis,1  there¬ 
fore,  when  a  certain  Athenian  laughed  at  the  Lacedaemo¬ 
nian  short  swords,  and  said,  “The  jugglers  would  swallow 
them  with  ease  upon  the  stage,”  answered  in  his  laconic 
way,  “  And  yet  we  can  reach  our  enemies’  hearts  with 
them.”  Indeed,  to  me  there  seems  to  be  something  in 
this  concise  manner  of  speaking,  which  immediately 
reaches  the  object  aimed  at,  and  forcibly  strikes  the  mind 
of  the  hearer.  Lycurgus  himself  was  short  and  senten¬ 
tious  in  his  discourse,  if  we  may  judge  by  some  of  his 
answers  which  are  recorded ;  that,  for  instance,  concern¬ 
ing  the  constitution.  When  one  advised  him  to  establish 
a  popular  government  in  Lacedaemon,  “  Go,”  said  he, 


1  Reigned  244-240  B.c.  In  his  attempt  to  reinstate  the  policy  of  these 
early  laws,  he  was  defeated  by  Leonidas  II.,  thrown  into  prison,  and  killed. 


Old  Greek  Education 


19 


“  and  first  make  a  trial  of  it  in  thine  own  family.”  That, 
again,  concerning  sacrifices  to  the  Deity,  when  he  was 
asked  why  he  appointed  them  so  trifling  and  of  so  lit¬ 
tle  value,  “  That  we  may  never  be  in  want,”  said  he,  “  of 
something  to  offer  him.”  Once  more,  when  they  inquired 
of  him  what  sort  of  martial  exercises  he  allowed  of,  he 
answered,  “All  except  those  in  which  you  stretch  out  your 
hands.”  Several  such-like  replies  of  his  are  said  to  be 
taken  from  the  letters  which  he  wrote  to  his  countrymen  : 
as  to  their  question,  “  How  shall  we  best  guard  against  the 
invasion  of  an  enemy  ?  ”  “  By  continuing  poor,  and  not 

desiring  in  your  possessions  to  be  one  above  another.”  And 
to  the  question,  whether  they  should  enclose  Sparta  with 
walls,  “  That  city  is  well  fortified  which  has  a  wall  of  men 
instead  of  brick.”  Whether  these  and  some  other  letters 
ascribed  to  him  are  genuine  or  not,  is  no  easy  matter  to 
determine.  However,  that  they  hated  long  speeches,  the 
following  apophthegms  are  a  farther  proof.  King  Leoni¬ 
das  1  said  to  one  who  discoursed  at  an  improper  time 
about  affairs  of  some  concern,  “  My  friend,  you  should  not 
talk  so  much  to  the  purpose  of  what  it  is  not  now  to  the 
purpose  to  talk  of.”  Charilaus,  the  nephew  of  Lycurgus, 
being  asked  why  his  uncle  had  made  so  few  laws,  answered, 
“  To  men  of  few  words,  few  laws  are  sufficient.”  Some 
people  finding  fault  with  Hecataeus  the  sophist,  because 
when  admitted  to  one  of  the  public  repasts  he  said  nothing 
all  the  time,  Archidamidas  replied,  “  He  who  knows  how  to 
speak,  knows  also  when  to  speak.”  .  .  . 

This  was  the  manner  of  their  apophthegms :  so  that  it 
has  been  justly  enough  observed  that  the  term  lakonizein 
(to  act  the  Lacedaemonian)  is  to  be  referred  rather  to  the 
exercises  of  the  mind  than  those  of  the  body. 

Nor  were  poetry  and  music  less  cultivated  among  them 
than  a  concise  dignity  of  expression.  Their  songs  had  a 
spirit  which  could  rouse  the  soul,  and  impel  it  in  an  enthu¬ 
siastic  manner  to  action.  The  language  was  plain  and 
manly,  the  subject  serious  and  moral.  For  they  consisted 
chiefly  of  the  praises  of  heroes  that  had  died  for  Sparta,  or 

1  Succeeded  Areus  on  the  throne  of  Sparta,  257  B.C.  For  a  time  compelled 
to  resign  by  his  colleague  Agis.  Died  230  B.c. 


Education 
in  poetry 
and  music. 


Spartans 
were  less 
severe  when 
on  cam¬ 
paigns. 


20  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

else  of  expressions  of  detestation  for  such  wretches  as  had 
declined  the  glorious  opportunity,  and  rather  chose  to  drag 
on  life  in  misery  and  contempt.  Nor  did  they  forget  to 
express  an  ambition  for  glory  suitable  to  their  respective 
ages.  .  .  . 

And  the  king  always  offered  sacrifice  to  the  muses  before 
a  battle,  putting  his  troops  in  mind,  I  suppose,  of  their  early 
education,  and  of  the  judgment  that  would  be  passed  upon 
them,  as  well  as  that  those  divinities  might  teach  them  to 
despise  danger,  while  they  performed  some  exploit  fit  for 
them  to  celebrate. 

On  those  occasions  they  relaxed  the  severity  of  their 
discipline,  permitting  their  men  to  be  curious  in  dressing 
their  hair,  and  elegant  in  their  arms  and  apparel,  while 
they  expressed  their  alacrity,  like  horses  full  of  fire  and 
neighing  for  the  race.  They  let  their  hair,  therefore,  grow 
from  their  youth,  but  took  more  particular  care  when  they 
expected  an  action  to  have  it  well  combed  and  shining; 
remembering  a  saying  of  Lycurgus,  that  a  large  head  of 
hair  made  the  handsome  more  graceful,  and  the  ugly  more 
terrible.  The  exercises,  too,  of  the  young  men  during  the 
campaigns  were  more  moderate,  their  diet  not  so  hard,  and 
their  whole  treatment  more  indulgent :  so  that  they  were 
the  only  people  in  the  world  with  whom  military  discipline 
wore  in  time  of  war  a  gentler  face  than  usual.  When  the 
army  was  drawn  up,  and  the  enemy  near,  the  king  sacri¬ 
ficed  a  goat,  and  commanded  them  all  to  set  garlands  upon 
their  heads,  and  the  musicians  to  play  Castor’s  march,  while 
himself  began  the  pcean ,  which  was  the  signal  to  advance. 
It  was  at  once  a  solemn  and  dreadful  sight  to  see  them 
measuring  their  steps  to  the  sound  of  music,  and  without 
the  least  disorder  in  their  ranks  or  tumult  of  spirits,  mov¬ 
ing  forward  cheerfully  and  composedly,  with  harmony,  to 
battle.  Neither  fear  nor  rashness  was  likely  to  approve 
men  so  disposed,  possessed  as  they  were  of  a  firm  pres¬ 
ence  of  mind,  with  courage  and  confidence  of  success,  as 
under  the  conduct  of  heaven.  When  the  king  advanced 
against  the  enemy  he  had  always  with  him  some  one  that 
had  been  crowned  in  the  public  games  of  Greece.  And 
they  tell  us  that  a  Lacedaemonian,  when  large  sums  were 
offered  him  on  condition  that  he  would  not  enter  the 


Old  Greek  Education 


21 


Olympic  lists,  refused  them :  having  with  much  difficulty 
thrown  his  antagonist,  one  put  this  question  to  him  —  “Spar¬ 
tan,  what  will  you  get  by  this  victory  ?  ”  He  answered  with 
a  smile,  “  I  shall  have  the  honour  to  fight  foremost  in  the 
ranks  before  my  prince.”  When  they  had  routed  the 
enemy,  they  continued  the  pursuit  till  they  were  assured  of 
the  victory ;  after  that  they  immediately  desisted,  deeming 
it  neither  generous  nor  worthy  of  a  Grecian  to  destroy 
those  who  made  no  farther  resistance.  This  was  not  only 
a  proof  of  magnanimity,  but  of  great  service  to  their  cause. 
For  when  their  adversaries  found  that  they  killed  such  as 
stood  it  out,  but  spared  the  fugitives,  they  concluded 
that  it  was  better  to  fly  than  to  meet  their  fate  upon  the 
spot.  .  .  . 

The  discipline  of  the  Lacedaemonians  continued  after 
they  were  arrived  at  years  of  maturity.  For  no  man  was 
at  liberty  to  live  as  he  pleased ;  the  city  being  like  one 
great  camp,  where  all  had  their  stated  allowance,  and  knew 
their  public  charge,  each  man  concluding  that  he  was  born, 
not  for  himself,  but  for  his  country.  Hence,  if  they  had 
no  particular  orders,  they  employed  themselves  in  inspect¬ 
ing  the  boys,  and  teaching  them  something  useful,  or  in 
learning  of  those  that  were  older  than  themselves.  One 
of  the  greatest  privileges  that  Lycurgus  procured  his 
countrymen,  was  the  enjoyment  of  leisure,  the  consequence 
of  his  forbidding  them  to  exercise  any  mechanic  trade.  It 
was  not  worth  their  while  to  take  great  pains  to  raise  a  for¬ 
tune,  since  riches  were  of  no  account:  and  the  Helotes,1 
who  tilled  the  ground,  were  answerable  for  the  produce 
above-mentioned.  To  this  purpose  we  have  a  story  of  a 
Lacedaemonian,  who,  happening  to  be  at  Athens  while  the 
court  sat,  was  informed  of  a  man  who  was  fined  for  idle¬ 
ness  ;  and  when  the  poor  fellow  was  returning  home  in 
great  dejection,  attended  by  his  condoling  friends,  he 
desired  the  company  to  show  him  the  person  that  was  con¬ 
demned  for  keeping  up  his  dignity.  So  much  beneath 
them  they  reckoned  all  attention  to  mechanic  arts  and  all 
desire  of  riches  !  .  .  . 

1  Spartan  serfs,  the  original  owners  of  the  land.  They  cultivated  the  lands 
for  the  Spartans. 


Wherein 

Spartan 

honor 

consisted. 


Occupation 
of  the  men. 


22  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Their 
disdain  of 
being  for 
one’s  self. 


Attacks  on 
Lycurgus 
are  unwar¬ 
ranted. 


Upon  the  whole,  he  taught  his  citizens  to  think  nothing 
more  disagreeable  than  to  live  by  (or  for)  themselves. 
Like  bees,  they  acted  with  one  impulse  for  the  public  good, 
and  always  assembled  about  their  prince.  They  were  pos¬ 
sessed  with  a  thirst  of  honour,  an  enthusiasm  bordering  upon 
insanity,  and  had  not  a  wish  but  for  their  country.  These 
sentiments  are  confirmed  by  some  of  their  aphorisms. 
When  Paedaretus  lost  his  election  for  one  of  the  three 
hundred,  he  went  away  rejoicing  that  there  were  three 
hundred  better  men  than  himself  found  in  the  city.  Pisis- 
tratidas  going  with  some  others,  ambassador  to  the  king  of 
Persia’s  lieutenants,  was  asked  whether  they  came  with  a 
public  commission,  or  on  their  own  account ;  to  which  he 
answered,  “  If  successful,  for  the  public ;  if  unsuccessful, 
for  ourselves.”  .  .  . 

Thus  far,  then,  we  can  perceive  no  vestiges  of  a  dis¬ 
regard  to  right  and  wrong,  which  is  the  fault  some  people 
find  with  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  allowing  them  well  enough 
calculated  to  produce  valour,  but  not  to  promote  justice. 
Perhaps  it  was  the  Cryptia,1  as  they  called  it,  or  ambuscade, 
if  that  was  really  one  of  this  lawgiver’s  institutions,  as 
Aristotle  says  it  was,  which  gave  Plato  so  bad  an  impres¬ 
sion  both  of  Lycurgus  and  his  laws.  The  governors  of 
the  youth  ordered  the  shrewdest  of  them  from  time  to  time 
to  disperse  themselves  in  the  country,  provided  only  with 
daggers  and  some  necessary  provisions.  In  the  daytime 
they  hid  themselves  and  rested  in  the  most  private  places 
they  could  find,  but  at  night  they  sallied  out  into  the  roads 
and  killed  all  the  Helotes  they  could  meet  with.  Nay, 
sometimes  by  day  they  fell  upon  them  in  the  fields,  and 
murdered  the  ablest  and  strongest  of  them.  Thucydides 
relates  in  his  history  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  that  the 
Spartans  selected  such  of  them  as  were  distinguished  for 
their  courage,  to  the  number  of  two  thousand  or  more, 
declared  them  free,  crowned  them  with  garlands,  and  con¬ 
ducted  them  to  the  temples  of  the  gods ;  but  soon  after 
they  all  disappeared,  and  no  one  could,  either  then  or 
since,  give  account  in  what  manner  they  were  destroyed. 


1  A  custom  which  permitted  the  ephors  at  night  to  fall  upon  the  Helots 
and  kill  them.  Its  purpose  was  military  training  for  the  Spartan  youths. 


Old  Greek  Education 


23 


Aristotle  particularly  says,  that  the  ephori,1  as  soon  as  they 
were  invested  in  their  office,  declared  war  against  the 
Helotes,  that  they  might  be  massacred  under  pretence  of 
law.  In  other  respects  they  treated  them  with  great  inhu¬ 
manity  ;  sometimes  they  made  them  drink  until  they  were 
intoxicated,  and  in  that  condition  led  them  into  the  public 
halls,  to  show  the  young  men  what  drunkenness  was.  They 
ordered  them  to  sing  mean  songs,  and  to  dance  ridiculous 
dances,  but  not  to  meddle  with  any  that  were  genteel  and 
graceful.  Thus  they  tell  us  that  when  the  Thebans  after¬ 
wards  invaded  Laconia,  and  took  a  great  number  of  the 
Helotes  prisoners,  they  ordered  them  to  sing  the  odes  of 
Terpander,  Aleman,2  or  Spendon  the  Lacedaemonian,  but 
they  excused  themselves,  alleging  that  it  was  forbidden  by 
their  masters.  Those  who  say  that  a  freeman  in  Sparta  was 
most  a  freeman,  and  a  slave  most  a  slave,  seem  well  to  have 
considered  the  difference  of  states.  But  in  my  opinion,  it 
was  in  after-times  that  these  cruelties  took  place  among  the 
Lacedaemonians ;  chiefly  after  the  great  earthquake,  when, 
as  history  informs  us,  the  Helotes  joining  the  Messenians, 
attacked  them,  did  infinite  damage  to  the  country,  and 
brought  the  city  to  the  greatest  extremity.  I  can  never 
ascribe  to  Lycurgus  so  abominable  an  act  as  that  of  the 
ambuscade.  I  would  judge  in  this  case  by  the  mildness 
and  justice  which  appeared  in  the  rest  of  his  conduct,  to 
which  also  the  gods  gave  their  sanction.  .  .  . 

It  was  not,  however,  the  principal  design  of  Lycurgus 
that  this  city  should  govern  many  others,  but  he  considered 
its  happiness,  like  that  of  a  private  man,  as  flowing  from 
virtue  and  self-consistency ;  he  therefore  so  ordered  and 
disposed  it,  that  by  the  freedom  and  sobriety  of  its  inhabit¬ 
ants,  and  their  having  a  sufficiency  within  themselves,  its 
continuance  might  be  the  more  secure.  Plato,  Diogenes, 
Zeno,  and  other  writers  upon  government,  have  taken 
Lycurgus  for  their  model ;  and  these  have  attained  great 
praise,  though  they  left  only  an  idea  of  something  excel¬ 
lent.  Yet  he  who  not  in  idea  and  in  words,  but  in  fact, 

1  Five  magistrates  whose  powers  in  Sparta  corresponded  to  the  Roman 
tribune. 

2  Chief  poet  of  Sparta.  Flourished  about  630  B.C. 


Cruelty  of 
the  ephori. 


Principles 
established 
by  Lycurgus. 


24  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

produced  a  most  inimitable  form  of  government,  and  by 
showing  a  whole  city  of  philosophers,  confounded  those 
who  imagine  that  the  so  much  talked  of  strictness  of  a 
philosophic  life  is  impracticable  ;  he,  I  say,  stands  in  the 
rank  of  glory  far  before  the  founders  of  all  the  other 
Grecian  states. 


The  Funeral  Oration  of  Pericles ,  from  Thucydides  1 


The  basis 
of  the 
traditional 
funeral 
ceremonies. 


*  Most  of  those  who  have  spoken  here  before  me  have 
commended  the  lawgiver  who  added  this  oration  to  our 
other  funeral  customs  ;  2  it  seemed  to  them  a  worthy  thing 
that  such  an  honour  should  be  given  at  their  burial  to  the 
dead  who  have  fallen  on  the  field  of  battle.  But  I  should 
have  preferred  that,  when  men’s  deeds  have  been  brave, 
they  should  be  honoured  in  deed  only,  and  with  such  an 
honour  as  this  public  funeral,  which  you  are  now  witness¬ 
ing.  Then  the  reputation  of  many  would  not  have  been 
imperilled  on  the  eloquence  or  want  of  eloquence  of  one, 
and  their  virtues  believed  or  not  as  he  spoke  well  or  ill. 
For  it  is  difficult  to  say  neither  too  little  nor  too  much; 
and  even  moderation  is  apt  not  to  give  the  impression  of 
truthfulness.  The  friend  of  the  dead  who  knows  the  facts 


1  Thucydides,  Book  II.  par.  35-47.  Jowett  translation. 

2  It  was  the  custom  of  the  Athenians  to  give  public  burial  to  those  who  fell 
in  battle.  Thucydides  describes  these  ceremonies  as  follows :  — 

“Three  days  before  the  celebration  they  erect  a  tent  in  which  the  bones  of 
the  dead  are  laid  out,  and  every  one  brings  to  his  own  dead  any  offering  which 
he  pleases.  At  the  time  of  the  funeral  the  bones  are  placed  in  chests  of 
cypress  wood,  which  are  conveyed  on  hearses;  there  is  one  chest  for  each 
tribe.  They  also  carry  a  single  empty  litter  decked  with  a  pall  for  all  whose 
bodies  are  missing,  and  cannot  be  recovered  after  the  battle.  The  procession 
is  accompanied  by  any  one  who  chooses,  whether  citizen  or  stranger,  and  the 
female  relatives  of  the  deceased  are  present  at  the  place  of  interment  and  make 
lamentation.  The  public  sepulchre  is  situated  in  the  most  beautiful  spot  out¬ 
side  the  walls;  there  they  always  bury  those  who  fall  in  war;  only  after  the 
battle  of  Marathon  the  dead,  in  recognition  of  their  preeminent  valour,  were 
interred  on  the  field.  When  the  remains  have  been  laid  in  the  earth,  some 
man  of  known  ability  and  high  reputation,  chosen  by  the  city,  delivers  a  suita¬ 
ble  oration  over  them;  after  which  the  people  depart.” 


Old  Greek  Education 


25 


is  likely  to  think  that  the  words  of  the  speaker  fall  short 
of  his  knowledge  and  of  his  wishes ;  another  who  is  not  so 
well  informed,  when  he  hears  of  anything  which  surpasses 
his  own  powers,  will  be  envious  and  will  suspect  exaggera¬ 
tion.  Mankind  are  tolerant  of  the  praises  of  others  so 
long  as  each  hearer  thinks  that  he  can  do  as  well  or  nearly 
as  well  himself,  but,  when  the  speaker  rises  above  him, 
jealousy  is  aroused  and  he  begins  to  be  incredulous. 
However,  since  our  ancestors  have  set  the  seal  of  their 
approval  upon  the  practice,  I  must  obey,  and  to  the  utmost 
of  my  power  shall  endeavour  to  satisfy  the  wishes  and 
beliefs  of  all  who  hear  me. 

‘  I  will  speak  first  of  our  ancestors,  for  it  is  right  and 
becoming  that  now,  when  we  are  lamenting  the  dead,  a 
tribute  should  be  paid  to  their  memory.  There  has  never 
been  a  time  when  they  did  not  inhabit  this  land,  which  by 
their  valour  they  have  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation,  and  we  have  received  from  them  a  free  state. 
But  if  they  are  worthy  of  praise,  still  more  were  our  fathers, 
who  added  to  their  inheritance,  and  after  many  a  struggle 
transmitted  to  us,  their  sons,  this  great  empire.  And  we 
ourselves  assembled  here  to-day,  who  are  still  most  of  us 
in  the  vigour  of  life,  have  chiefly  done  the  work  of  improve¬ 
ment,  and  have  richly  endowed  our  city  with  all  things,  so 
that  she  is  sufficient  for  herself  both  in  peace  and  war. 
Of  the  military  exploits  by  which  our  various  possessions 
were  acquired,  or  of  the  energy  with  which  we  or  our 
fathers  drove  back  the  tide  of  war,  Hellenic  or  Barbarian, 
I  will  not  speak ;  for  the  tale  would  be  long  and  is  familiar 
to  you.  But  before  I  praise  the  dead,  I  should  like  to 
point  out  by  what  principles  of  action  we  rose  to  power, 
and  under  what  institutions  and  through  what  manner  of 
life  our  empire  became  great.  For  I  conceive  that  such 
thoughts  are  not  unsuited  to  the  occasion,  and  that  this 
numerous  assembly  of  citizens  and  strangers  may  profit¬ 
ably  listen  to  them. 

‘  Our  form  of  government  does  not  enter  into  rivalry 
with  the  institutions  of  others.  We  do  not  copy  our  neigh¬ 
bours,  but  are  an  example  to  them.  It  is  true  that  we  are 
called  a  democracy,  for  the  administration  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  many  and  not  of  the  few.  But  while  the  law  secures 


The  great¬ 
ness  of 
Athens  due 
to  the  char¬ 
acter  of  her 
citizens  and 
of  her  in¬ 
stitutions. 


The  govern 

ment  is  a 

democracy 

which 

rewards 

merit. 


26  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Their 
enjoyment 
of  life. 


Their 
military 
powers  not 
gained  by 
tyranny  or 
isolation. 


equal  justice  to  all  alike  in  their  private  disputes,  the  claim 
of  excellence  is  also  recognised ;  and  when  a  citizen  is  in 
any  way  distinguished,  he  is  preferred  to  the  public  service, 
not  as  a  matter  of  privilege,  but  as  the  reward  of  merit. 
Neither  is  poverty  a  bar,  but  a  man  may  benefit  his  coun¬ 
try  whatever  be  the  obscurity  of  his  condition.  There  is 
no  exclusiveness  in  our  public  life,  and  in  our  private  inter¬ 
course  we  are  not  suspicious  of  one  another,  nor  angry 
with  our  neighbour  if  h$  does  what  he  likes ;  we  do  not 
put  on  sour  looks  at  him  which,  though  harmless,  are  not 
pleasant.  While  we  are  thus  unconstrained  in  our  private 
intercourse,  a  spirit  of  reverence  pervades  our  public  acts  ; 
we  are  prevented  from  doing  wrong  by  respect  for  author¬ 
ity  and  for  the  laws,  having  an  especial  regard  to  those 
which  are  ordained  for  the  protection  of  the  injured  as 
well  as  to  those  unwritten  laws  which  bring  upon  the  trans¬ 
gressor  of  them  the  reprobation  of  the  general  sentiment. 

‘  And  we  have  not  forgotten  to  provide  for  our  weary 
spirits  many  relaxations  from  toil ;  we  have  regular  games 
and  sacrifices  throughout  the  year ;  at  home  the  style  of 
our  life  is  refined ;  and  the  delight  which  we  daily  feel  in 
all  these  things  helps  to  banish  melancholy.  Because  of 
the  greatness  of  our  city  the  fruits  of  the  whole  earth  flow 
in  upon  us;  so  that  we  enjoy  the  goods  of  other  countries 
as  freely  as  of  our  own. 

‘  Then,  again,  our  military  training  is  in  many  respects 
superior  to  that  of  our  adversaries.  Our  city  is  thrown 
open  to  the  world,  and  we  never  expel  a  foreigner  or  pre¬ 
vent  him  from  seeing  or  learning  anything  of  which  the 
secret  if  revealed  to  an  enemy  might  profit  him.  We  rely 
not  upon  management  or  trickery,  but  upon  our  own 
hearts  and  hands.  And  in  the  matter  of  education,  where¬ 
as  they  from  early  youth  are  always  undergoing  laborious 
exercises  which  are  to  make  them  brave,  we  live  at  ease, 
and  yet  are  equally  ready  to  face  the  perils  which  they 
face.  And  here  is  the  proof.  The  Lacedaemonians 
come  into  Attica  not  by  themselves,  but  with  their  whole 
Confederacy  following ;  we  go  alone  into  a  neighbour’s 
country  ;  and  although  our  opponents  are  fighting  for  their 
homes  and  we  on  a  foreign  soil,  we  have  seldom  any 
difficulty  in  overcoming  them.  Our  enemies  have  never 


Old  Greek  Education 


27 


yet  felt  our  united  strength;  the  care  of  a  navy  divides 
our  attention,  and  on  land  we  are  obliged  to  send  our  own 
citizens  everywhere.  But  they,  if  they  meet  and  defeat  a 
part  of  our  army,  are  as  proud  as  if  they  had  routed  us 
all,  and  when  defeated  they  pretend  to  have  been  van¬ 
quished  by  us  all. 

‘  If  then  we  prefer  to  meet  danger  with  a  light  heart 
but  without  laborious  training,  and  with  a  courage  which 
is  gained  by  habit  and  not  enforced  by  law,  are  we  not 
greatly  the  gainers  ?  Since  we  do  not  anticipate  the  pain, 
although,  when  the  hour  comes,  we  can  be  as  brave  as 
those  who  never  allow  themselves  to  rest;  and  thus  too 
our  city  is  equally  admirable  in  peace  and  in  war.  For 
we  are  lovers  of  the  beautiful,  yet  simple  in  our  tastes, 
and  we  cultivate  the  mind  without  loss  of  manliness. 
Wealth  we  employ,  not  for  talk  and  ostentation,  but  when 
there  is  a  real  use  for  it.  To  avow  poverty  with  us  is  no 
disgrace ;  the  true  disgrace  is  in  doing  nothing  to  avoid  it. 
An  Athenian  citizen  does  not  neglect  the  state  because 
he  takes  care  of  his  own  household ;  and  even  those  of  us 
who  are  engaged  in  business  have  a  very  fair  idea  of 
politics.  We  alone  regard  a  man  who  takes  no  interest  in 
public  affairs,  not  as  a  harmless,  but  as  a  useless  charac¬ 
ter ;  and  if  few  of  us  are  originators,  we  are  all  sound 
judges  of  a  policy.  The  great  impediment  to  action  is, 
in  our  opinion,  not  discussion,  but  the  want  of  that  knowl¬ 
edge  which  is  gained  by  discussion  preparatory  to  action. 
For  we  have  a  peculiar  power  of  thinking  before  we  act 
and  of  acting  too,  whereas  other  men  are  courageous 
from  ignorance  but  hesitate  upon  reflection.  And  they 
are  surely  to  be  esteemed  the  bravest  spirits  who,  having 
the  clearest  sense  both  of  the  pains  and  pleasures  of  life, 
do  not  on  that  account  shrink  from  danger.  In  doing 
good,  again,  we  are  unlike  others ;  we  make  our  friends 
by  conferring,  not  by  receiving  favours.  Now  he  who 
confers  a  favour  is  the  firmer  friend,  because  he  would 
fain  by  kindness  keep  alive  the  memory  of  an  obligation ; 
but  the  recipient  is  colder  in  his  feelings,  because  he  knows 
that  in  requiting  another’s  generosity  he  will  not  be  win¬ 
ning  gratitude  but  only  paying  a  debt.  We  alone  do 
good  to  our  neighbours  not  upon  a  calculation  of  interest, 


The  free 
develop¬ 
ment,  not 
the  repres¬ 
sion  of  the 
individual, 
the  basis 
of  their 
strength. 


28  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


The 

resulting 
versatility 
of  the 
Athenians. 


The  praise 
of  Athens 
is  the  praise 
of  each 
Athenian 
citizen. 


but  in  the  confidence  of  freedom  and  in  a  frank  and  fear¬ 
less  spirit.  To  sum  up  :  I  say  that  Athens  is  the  school 
of  Hellas,  and  that  the  individual  Athenian  in  his  own 
person  seems  to  have  the  power  of  adapting  himself  to 
the  most  varied  forms  of  action  with  the  utmost  versatil¬ 
ity  and  grace.  This  is  no  passing  and  idle  word,  but  truth 
and  fact ;  and  the  assertion  is  verified  by  the  position  to 
which  these  qualities  have  raised  the  state.  For  in  the 
hour  of  trial  Athens  alone  among  her  contemporaries  is 
superior  to  the  report  of  her.  No  enemy  who  comes 
against  her  is  indignant  at  the  reverses  which  he  sustains 
at  the  hands  of  such  a  city  ;  no  subject  complains  that 
his  masters  are  unworthy  of  him.  And  we  shall  assuredly 
not  be  without  witnesses  ;  there  are  mighty  monuments 
of  our  power  which  will  make  us  the  wonder  of  this  and 
of  succeeding  ages  ;  we  shall  not  need  the  praises  of 
Homer  or  of  any  other  panegyrist  whose  poetry  may 
please  for  the  moment,  although  his  representation  of  the 
facts  will  not  bear  the  light  of  day.  For  we  have  com¬ 
pelled  every  land  and  every  sea  to  open  a  path  for  our 
valour,  and  have  everywhere  planted  eternal  memorials  of 
our  friendship  and  of  our  enmity.  Such  is  the  city  for 
whose  sake  these  men  nobly  fought  and  died ;  they  could 
not  bear  the  thought  that  she  might  be  taken  from  them  ; 
and  every  one  of  us  who  survive  should  gladly  toil  on  her 
behalf. 

‘  I  have  dwelt  upon  the  greatness  of  Athens  because  I 
want  to  show  you  that  we  are  contending  for  a  higher 
prize  than  those  who  enjoy  none  of  these  privileges,  and 
to  establish  by  manifest  proof  the  merits  of  these  men 
whom  I  am  now  commemorating.  Their  loftiest  praise 
has  been  already  spoken.  For  in  magnifying  the  city  I 
have  magnified  them,  and  men  like  them  whose  virtues 
made  her  glorious.  And  of  how  few  Hellenes  can  it  be 
said  as  of  them,  that  their  deeds  when  weighed  in  the 
balance  have  been  found  equal  to  their  fame !  Methinks 
that  a  death  such  as  theirs  has  been  gives  the  true  meas¬ 
ure  of  a  man’s  worth ;  it  may  be  the  first  revelation  of  his 
virtues,  but  is  at  any  rate  their  final  seal.  For  even  those 
who  come  short  in  other  ways  may  justly  plead  the  valour 
with  which  they  have  fought  for  their  country ;  they  have 


Old  Greek  Education 


29 


blotted  out  the  evil  with  the  good,  and  have  benefited  the 
state  more  by  their  public  services  than  they  have  injured 
her  by  their  private  actions.  None  of  these  men  were 
enervated  by  wealth  or  hesitated  to  resign  the  pleasures 
of  life;  none  of  them  put  off  the  evil  day  in  the  hope, 
natural  to  poverty,  that  a  man,  though  poor,  may  one  day 
become  rich.  But,  deeming  that  the  punishment  of  their 
enemies  was  sweeter  than  any  of  these  things,  and  that 
they  could  fall  in  no  nobler  cause,  they  determined  at  the 
hazard  of  their  lives  to  be  honourably  avenged,  and  to 
leave  the  rest.  They  resigned  to  hope  their  unknown 
chance  of  happiness ;  but  in  the  face  of  death  they 
resolved  to  rely  upon  themselves  alone.  And  when  the 
moment  came  they  were  minded  to  resist  and  suffer,  rather 
than  to  fly  and  save  their  lives ;  they  ran  away  from  the 
word  of  dishonour,  but  on  the  battle-field  their  feet  stood 
fast,  and  in  an  instant,  at  the  height  of  their  fortune,  they 
passed  away  from  the  scene,  not  of  their  fear,  but  of  their 
glory. 

‘Such  was  the  end  of  these  men;  they  were  worthy  of 
Athens,  and  the  living  need  not  desire  to  have  a  more 
heroic  spirit,  although  they  may  pray  for  a  less  fatal  issue. 
The  value  of  such  a  spirit  is  not  to  be  expressed  in  words. 
Any  one  can  discourse  to  you  for  ever  about  the  advan¬ 
tages  of  a  brave  defence  which  you  know  already.  But 
instead  of  listening  to  him  I  would  have  you  day  by  day 
fix  your  eyes  upon  the  greatness  of  Athens,  until  you 
become  filled  with  the  love  of  her ;  and  when  you  are 
impressed  by  the  spectacle  of  her  glory,  reflect  that  this 
empire  has  been  acquired  by  men  who  knew  their  duty 
and  had  the  courage  to  do  it,  who  in  the  hour  of  conflict 
had  the  fear  of  dishonour  always  present  to  them,  and 
who,  if  ever  they  failed  in  an  enterprize,  would  not  allow 
their  virtues  to  be  lost  to  their  country,  but  freely  gave 
their  lives  to  her  as  the  fairest  offering  which  they  could 
present  at  her  feast.  The  sacrifice  which  they  collectively 
made  was  individually  repaid  to  them ;  for  they  received 
again  each  one  for  himself  a  praise  which  grows  not  old, 
and  the  noblest  of  all  sepulchres  —  I  speak  not  of  that 
in  which  their  remains  are  laid,  but  of  that  in  which  their 
glory  survives,  and  is  proclaimed  always  and  on  every 


All  have 
preferred 
death  to 
dishonor. 


The  memory 
and  influ¬ 
ence  of  the 
martyr 
dead. 


30  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Consolation 
for  the 
parents  of 
the  dead. 


fitting  occasion  both  in  word  and  deed.  For  the  whole 
earth  is  the  sepulchre  of  famous  men ;  not  only  are  they 
commemorated  by  columns  and  inscriptions  in  their  own 
country,  but  in  foreign  lands  there  dwells  also  an  unwritten 
memorial  of  them,  graven  not  on  stone  but  in  the  hearts 
of  men.  Make  them  your  examples,  and,  esteeming  cour¬ 
age  to  be  freedom  and  freedom  to  be  happiness,  do  not 
weigh  too  nicely  the  perils  of  war.  The  unfortunate  who 
has  no  hope  of  a  change  for  the  better  has  less  reason 
to  throw  away  his  life  than  the  prosperous  who,  if  he  sur¬ 
vive,  is  always  liable  to  a  change  for  the  worse,  and  to 
whom  any  accidental  fall  makes  the  most  serious  differ¬ 
ence.  To  a  man  of  spirit,  cowardice  and  disaster  coming 
together  are  far  more  bitter  than  death  striking  him  un¬ 
perceived  at  a  time  when  he  is  full  of  courage  and  ani¬ 
mated  by  the  general  hope. 

‘  Wherefore  I  do  not  now  commiserate  the  parents  of  the 
dead  who  stand  here;  I  would  rather  comfort  them.  You 
know  that  your  life  has  been  passed  amid  manifold  vicissi¬ 
tudes ;  and  that  they  may  be  deemed  fortunate  who  have 
gained  most  honour,  whether  an  honourable  death  like 
theirs,  or  an  honourable  sorrow  like  yours,  and  whose 
days  have  been  so  ordered  that  the  term  of  their  happi¬ 
ness  is  likewise  the  term  of  their  life.  I  know  how  hard 
it  is  to  make  you  feel  this,  when  the  good  fortune  of 
others  will  too  often  remind  you  of  the  gladness  which 
once  lightened  your  hearts.  And  sorrow  is  felt  at  the 
want  of  those  blessings,  not  which  a  man  never  knew,  but 
which  were  a  part  of  his  life  before  they  were  taken  from 
him.  Some  of  you  are  of  an  age  at  which  they  may  hope 
to  have  other  children,  and  they  ought  to  bear  their  sorrow 
better ;  not  only  will  the  children  who  may  hereafter  be 
born  make  them  forget  their  own  lost  ones,  but  the  city 
will  be  doubly  a  gainer.  She  will  not  be  left  desolate, 
and  she  will  be  safer.  For  a  man’s  counsel  cannot  have 
equal  weight'  or  worth,  when  he  alone  has  no  children  to 
risk  in  the  general  danger.  To  those  of  you  who  have 
passed  their  prime,  I  say :  “  Congratulate  yourselves  that 
you  have  been  happy  during  the  greater  part  of  your  days ; 
remember  that  your  life  of  sorrow  will  not  last  long,  and 
be  comforted  by  the  glory  of  those  who  are  gone.  For 


Old  Greek  Education 


3i 


i 


1 


the  love  of  honour  alone  is  ever  young,  and  not  riches,  as 
some  say,  but  honour  is  the  delight  of  men  when  they  are 
old  and  useless.” 

‘To  you  who  are  the  sons  and  brothers  of  the  departed, 
I  see  that  the  struggle  to  emulate  them  will  be  an  ardu¬ 
ous  one.  For  all  men  praise  the  dead,  and,  however  pre¬ 
eminent  your  virtue  may  be,  hardly  will  you  be  thought, 
I  do  not  say  to  equal,  but  even  to  approach  them.  The 
living  have  their  rivals  and  detractors,  but  when  a  man 
is  out  of  the  way,  the  honour  and  good-will  which  he  re¬ 
ceives  is  unalloyed.  And,  if  I  am  to  speak  of  womanly 
virtues  to  those  of  you  who  will  henceforth  be  widows,  let 
me  sum  them  up  in  one  short  admonition  :  To  a  woman 
not  to  show  more  weakness  than  is  natural  to  her  sex  is 
a  great  glory,  and  not  to  be  talked  about  for  good  or  for 
evil  among  men. 

‘  I  have  paid  the  required  tribute,  in  obedience  to  the 
law,  making  use  of  such  fitting  words  as  I  had.  The 
tribute  of  deeds  has  been  paid  in  part ;  for  the  dead  have 
been  honourably  interred,  and  it  remains  only  that  their 
children  should  be  maintained  at  the  public  charge  until 
they  are  grown  up  :  this  is  the  solid  prize  with  which,  as 
with  a  garland,  Athens  crowns  her  sons  living  and  dead, 
after  a  struggle  like  theirs.  For  where  the  rewards  of 
virtue  are  greatest,  there  the  noblest  citizens  are  enlisted 
in  the  service  of  the  state.  And  now,  when  you  have 
duly  lamented,  every  one  his  own  dead,  you  may  depart.’ 


Speech  of  Protagoras  on  “  Teaching  of  Morals ,”  from  the 

Protagoras  of  Plato 


325  c-326  d.  Education  and  admonition  commence  in 
the  first  years  of  childhood,  and  last  to  the  very  end  of  life. 
Mother  and  nurse  and  father  and  tutor  are  quarrelling  about 
the  improvement  of  the  child  as  soon  as  ever  he  is  able  to 
understand  them  :  he  cannot  say  or  do  anything  without 
their  setting  forth  to  him  that  this  is  just  and  that  is  unjust ; 
this  is  honourable,  that  is  dishonourable ;  this  is  holy,  that 
is  unholy  ;  do  this  and  abstain  from  that.  And  if  he  obeys, 
well  and  good ;  if  not,  he  is  straightened  by  threats  and 


Examples 
for  imita¬ 
tion. 


Athens’ 
tribute  to 
the  fallen 


The  scope 
and  char¬ 
acter  of 
education. 


32  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


The  music 
school. 


The  school 
of  gym¬ 
nastic. 


Public 

education  of 
the  ephebes. 


blows,  like  a  piece  of  warped  wood.  At  a  later  stage  they 
send  him  to  teachers,  and  enjoin  them  to  see  to  his  manners 
even  more  than  to  his  reading  and  music  ;  and  the  teachers 
do  as  they  are  desired.  And  when  the  boy  has  learned  his 
letters  and  is  beginning  to  understand  what  is  written,  as 
before  he  understood  only  what  was  spoken,  they  put  into 
his  hands  the  works  of  great  poets,  which  he  reads  at 
school ;  in  these  are  contained  many  admonitions,  and 
many  tales,  and  praises,  and  encomia  of  ancient  famous 
men,  which  he  is  required  to  learn  by  heart,  in  order  that 
he  may  imitate  or  emulate  them  and  desire  to  become  like 
them.  Then,  again,  the  teachers  of  the  lyre  take  similar 
care  that  their  young  disciple  is  temperate  and  gets  into  no 
mischief ;  and  when  they  have  taught  him  the  use  of  the 
lyre,  they  introduce  him  to  the  poems  of  other  excellent 
poets,  who  are  the  lyric  poets  ;  and  these  they  set  to  music, 
and  make  their  harmonies  and  rhythms  quite  familiar  to  the 
children’s  souls,  in  order  that  they  may  learn  to  be  more 
gentle,  and  harmonious,  and  rhythmical,  and  so  more  fitted 
for  speech  and  action ;  for  the  life  of  man  in  every  part  has 
need  of  harmony  and  rhythm.  Then  they  send  them  to  the 
master  of  gymnastic,  in  order  that  their  bodies  may  better 
minister  to  the  virtuous  mind,  and  that  they  may  not  be 
compelled  through  bodily  weakness  to  play  the  coward  in 
war  or  on  any  other  occasion.  This  is  what  is  done  by  those 
who  have  the  means,  and  those  who  have  the  means  are 
the  rich ;  their  children  begin  education  soonest  and  leave  off 
latest.  When  they  have  done  with  masters,  the  state  again 
compels  them  to  learn  the  laws,  and  live  after  the  pattern 
which  they  furnish,  and  not  after  their  own  fancies ;  and 
just  as  in  learning  to  write,  the  writing-master  first  draws 
lines  with  a  style  for  the  use  of  the  young  beginner,  and 
gives  him  the  tablet  and  makes  him  follow  the  lines,  so  the 
city  draws  the  laws,  which  were  the  invention  of  good  law¬ 
givers  who  were  of  old  time ;  these  are  given  to  the  young 
man,  in  order  to  guide  him  in  his  conduct  whether  as  ruler 
or  ruled ;  and  he  who  transgresses  them  is  to  be  corrected, 
or,  in  other  words,  called  to  account,  which  is  a  term  used 
not  only  in  your  country,  but  also  in  many  others.  Now 
when  there  is  all  this  care  about  virtue  private  and  public, 
why,  Socrates,  do  you  still  wonder  and  doubt  whether  virtue 


Old  Greek  Education 


33 

can  be  taught  ?  Cease  to  wonder,  for  the  opposite  would 
be  far  more  surprising. 


Oath  of  the  Athenian  Ephebes 

I  will  never  disgrace  these  sacred  arms,  nor  desert  my 
companion  in  the  ranks.  I  will  fight  for  temples  and  public 
property,  both  alone  and  with  many.  I  will  transmit  my 
fatherland,  not  only  not  less,  but  greater  and  better,  than 
it  was  transmitted  to  me.  I  will  obey  the  magistrates  who 
may  at  any  time  be  in  power.  I  will  observe  both  the  existing 
laws  and  those  which  the  people  may  unanimously  hereafter 
make,  and,  if  any  person  seek  to  annul  the  laws  or  to  set  them 
at  nought,  I  will  do  my  best  to  prevent  him,  and  will  defend 
them  both  alone  and  with  many.  I  will  honor  the  religion 
of  my  fathers.  And  I  call  to  witness  Agraulos,1  Enyalios,2 
Ares,3  Zeus,  Thallo,4  and  Auxo,5  and  Hegemone.5 

1  Daughter  of  Cecrops  and  Angraulos.  She  threw  herself  from  the  Acropo¬ 
lis  because  an  oracle  had  declared  that  the  Athenians  would  conquer  if  some 
one  would  sacrifice  himself  for  his  country. 

2  A  surname  frequently  given  to  Mars  in  the  Iliad \  and  corresponding  with 
the  name  Enyo  given  to  Bellona. 

8  The  Greek  god  of  war,  called  Mars  by  the  Romans. 

4  Daughter  of  Zeus  and  Themis.  Guarded  and  promoted  the  order  of 
nature  in  the  springtime. 

5  Auxo  (increase)  and  Hegemone  (queen)  were  the  two  graces  worshipped 
at  Athens.  When  the  Athenian  youth  received  his  weapons  of  war  he  swore 
by  them. 


D 


II.  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  GREECE 

Period  and  Source.  —  The  social  revolution  of  the  fifth  and 
fourth  centuries  b.c.  affected  the  position  of  women  as  well 
as  other  aspects  of  Greek  society,  but  the  changes  in  the 
education  of  women  were  in  no  wise  so  profound  as  those 
affecting  the  education  of  men.  It  is  true  that  there  was 
a  demand  for  greater  freedom  for  women.  Evidences  of 
this  are  to  be  found  in  the  teachings  of  Socrates  and  the 
writings  of  Plato.  The  latter  held  that  the  women  pos¬ 
sessed  the  same  faculties  as  men,  only  in  a  lesser  degree, 
and  were  entitled  to  a  similar  education.  In  this  respect 
he  approved  the  practices  of  the  Spartans.  A  distinct 
cult  relating  to  the  greater  freedom  and  higher  education 
of  women  seems  to  have  centred  about  Apasia.  But  so 
far  as  these  changes  concern  the  status  of  married 
women,  they  appear  to  have  been  limited  to  greater  free¬ 
dom  and  responsibility  in  the  home.  Literary  education 
and  intellectual  pursuits  belonged  only  to  those  who  were 
without  the  home  circle,  the  hetcerce ,  and  in  such  privi¬ 
leges  they  were  placed  in  sharp  opposition  to  the  position 
of  the  wife.  The  approved  education  of  the  women  in  the 
home  during  the  later  period  did  not  differ  materially  from 
that  of  the  earlier  period.  There  was  permissible  a  greater 
attention  to  dress  and  the  toilet,  somewhat  greater  freedom 
in  the  home,  and  a  greater  responsibility  in  its  management. 
But  as  a  rule  the  sphere  of  woman’s  activities  and  the  scope 
of  her  education  were  still  very  limited.  Hence  the  descrip- 

34 


Education  of  Women  in  Greece 


35 


tion  of  woman’s  education  is  essentially  the  same  for  the 
two  periods  of  Grecian  education  that  include  the  historic 
portion  of  independent  existence  of  the  nation. 

The  description  here  given  is  taken  from  the  Economics 
of  Xenophon.  Xenophon  lived  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 
fifth  century  and  the  first  half  of  the  fourth,  though  the  dates 
of  his  birth  and  of  his  death  are  unknown.  Some  authorities 
make  the  period  of  his  life  a  quarter  of  a  century  earlier. 
However  that  may  be,  he  writes  from  well  within  the  period 
of  the  new  practices.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this 
selection  is  but  another  evidence  of  a  campaign  for  the 
rights  of  the  “new  woman,”  and  as  such  is  a  source 
belonging  to  education  of  the  later  period  only.  But 
Xenophon  was  a  conservative  in  almost  every  respect, 
and  was  an  advocate  of  the  old  education  for  men, 
as  will  be  seen  in  a  later  selection  (p.  122).  Moreover, 
the  education  here  advocated  for  women  is  essentially 
the  old  education.  It  contains  no  intellectual  training 
whatever,  but  is  essentially  a  training  in  domestic  duties. 
There  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  education  ad¬ 
vocated  for  the  woman  in  the  home  should  approximate 
in  its  freedom  and  intellectuality  that  allowed  to  the 
hetcerce.  It  is,  therefore,  correct  to  take  this  passage 
as  descriptive  of  the  approved  education  of  the  Athenian 
woman  in  the  earlier  as  well  as  in  the  later  period,  though 
as  described  by  Xenophon  this  education  is  systematized 
and  somewhat  elaborated. 

The  Economics  is  one  of  the  so-called  “  Socratic  ”  writings 
of  Xenophon,  and  treats  of  the  management  of  the  house¬ 
hold.  But  it  is  rather  an  exposition  of  his  own  ideas  than 
of  those  of  his  master,  for  concerning  such  practical 
affairs  Xenophon  was  more  of  an  authority  than  Socrates. 


36  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

While  in  many  respects  Xenophon  was  a  cosmopolitan  in 
his  treatment  of  this  subject,  in  the  main  he  is  well  within 
the  old  conservative  Grecian  practices.  The  description 
given  is  of  an  Athenian  girl  brought  up  in  total  ignorance 
of  practical  affairs,  and,  though  kept  in  seclusion  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  old  ideas,  yet  trained  in  some  of  the  frivolous 
practices  of  the  more  degenerate  times.  The  girl,  thus 
neglected  in  her  earlier  training,  is  educated  by  her  hus¬ 
band  as  she  should  have  been  by  her  parents.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  striking  and  detailed  accounts  relating 
to  education  to  be  found  in  Greek  literature. 

The  Education  of  Women  in  Greece,  as  described  in  this 
passage  from  the  Economics ,  relates  specifically  to  Athens 
but  is  typically  Grecian.  References  in  the  Homeric 
poems  are  indicative  of  the  same  practices  in  an  earlier 
stage  of  development.  At  Sparta  a  widely  divergent 
type  of  education  was  found.  There  girls  received  an 
education  similar  to  the  boys,  even  in  respect  to  gymnastic 
and  rudimentary  military  training.  Boys  and  girls  were 
not  educated  together,  but  girls  were  under  the  discipline 
of  women,  as  boys  were  of  the  men.  These  statements 
are  made  by  Plutarch  and  others,  though  few  details  are 
given.  There  was,  of  course,  this  general  difference  in 
principle :  men  were  educated  with  the  sole  idea  of  be¬ 
coming  warriors ;  women  with  the  sole  idea  of  becoming 
mothers  of  warriors.  At  Athens,  women  were  educated 
for  the  home,  hence  their  education  was  essentially  a  train¬ 
ing  in  domestic  duties.  The  ideal  of  this  education  re¬ 
ceives  a  clear  statement  in  the  passage  in  Pericles’ 
Funeral  Oration  :  “  .  .  .  to  a  woman  not  to  show  more  weak¬ 
ness  than  is  natural  to  her  sex  is  a  great  glory,  and  not 
to  be  talked  about  for  good  or  evil  among  men.”  Such 


Education  of  Women  in  Greece  37 

an  education  could  be  given  only  in  the  home.  The 
literary  and  gymnastic  schools  were  for  boys.  Woman’s 
education  was  in  the  performance  of  household  duties, 
and  in  the  attainment  of  domestic  virtues.  In  the  later 
period,  when  the  old  moral,  religious,  and  social  ideas  had 
lost  much  of  their  binding  force,  many  Greek  women  did, 
to  be  sure,  receive  a  literary  education,  but  in  so  doing 
lost  their  place  as  the  head  of  the  household  and  the 
reverence  that  had  been  given  them  as  such.  The  Grecian 
woman  was  never  on  an  equality  with  her  husband,  as  was 
true  in  many  respects  at  Rome ;  and  when  she  attained  or 
aspired  to  intellectual  equality,  it  was  at  the  sacrifice  of 
the  position  in  the  home  that  she  had,  up  to  that  time, 
held  securely.  The  dialogue  from  the  Economics  gives 
an  account  of  the  approved  education  with  as  much  de¬ 
tail  as  one  could  otherwise  secure  by  a  reconstruction 
from  a  great  variety  of  isolated  passages.  In  addition 
to  supplying  the  details,  it  gives  also  the  philosophy  of 
this  restricted  education  as  it  appeared  to  a  keen,  observ¬ 
ing,  conservative  Greek  of  the  period,  when  both  old  and 
new  could  yet  be  compared. 

Selections  from  the  Economics  of  Xenophon 

CHAPTER  VII.  THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

I.  ‘‘Observing  him1  therefore  sitting  one  day  in  the 
portico  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Eleutherius,2  I  went  to¬ 
wards  him,  and  as  he  seemed  to  me  to  be  at  leisure,  sat 
down  near  him,  and  said,  ‘Why  are  you,  Ischomachus, 

1  Ischomachus,  a  friend  of  Socrates,  called  fair  and  good ;  these  terms  indi¬ 
cate  the  ideal  educated  man. 

2  The  temple  of  Zeus,  “  the  Deliverer.”  After  the  battle  of  Plataea,  479  B.C., 
a  special  feast  of  liberty  was  instituted  in  honor  of  “  the  Deliverer.” 


38  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Why  called 
“  fair  and 
good.” 


Training  of 
the  girl. 


who  are  not  accustomed  to  be  idle,  sitting  thus  ?  for  in 
general  I  see  you  either  doing  something,  or  certainly 
not  altogether  wasting  your  time,  in  the  market-place.’ 
2.  ‘  Nor  would  you  now  see  me  quite  unoccupied,  Socrates,’ 
said  Ischomachus,  ‘if  I  had  not  made  an  appointment  to 
wait  here  for  some  strangers.’  ‘  But  when  you  have  no 
such  engagements,’  said  I,  ‘where,  in  the  name  of  heaven, 
do  you  spend  your  time,  and  how  do  you  employ  yourself  ? 
for  I  have  the  strongest  desire  to  learn  from  you  what  it  is 
you  do  that  you  are  called  fair  and  good ;  since  you  cer¬ 
tainly  do  not  pass  your  life  indoors,  nor  does  your  complexion 
look  like  that  of  a  man  who  does  so.’  3.  Ischomachus, 
smiling  at  my  inquiry,  what  do  you  do  to  be  called  fair  and 
good,  and  being  pleased  at  it,  as  it  seemed  to  me,  replied, 
‘  Whether  people,  when  they  talk  together  about  me,  give 
me  that  appellation,  I  do  not  know ;  but  certainly  when 
they  call  upon  me  as  to  the  antidosis 1  of  the  duties  of  a 
trierarch 1  2  or  choragus,3  no  one  summons  me  by  the  name 
of  fair  and  good,  but  they  designate  me  plainly  as  Ischo¬ 
machus,  distinguishing  me  by  the  name  of  my  father ;  and 
as  to  what  you  ask  me  besides,  Socrates,  I  assuredly  do  not 
spend  my  life  indoors;  for,’  added  he,  ‘my  wife  is  quite 
capable  herself  of  managing  what  is  to  be  done  in  my 
house.’  4.  ‘But,’  said  I,  ‘Ischomachus,  I  would  very 
gladly  be  permitted  to  ask  you  whether  you  instructed 
your  wife  yourself,  so  that  she  might  be  qualified  as  she 
ought  to  be,  or  whether,  when  you  received  her  from  her 
father  and  mother,  she  was  possessed  of  sufficient  knowl¬ 
edge  to  manage  what  belongs  to  her.’  5.  ‘And  how, 
my  dear  Socrates,’  said  he,  ‘could  she  have  had  sufficient 
knowledge  when  I  took  her,  since  she  came  to  my  house 
when  she  was  not  fifteen  years  old,  and  had  spent  the 
preceding  part  of  her  life  under  the  strictest  restraint,  in 

1  An  Athenian  law  which  specified  that  if  any  person  was  called  upon  to 
take  the  duty  of  any  public  office,  and  could  point  out  any  person  richer  than 
himself,  who  ought  to  have  been  called  upon  instead  of  himself,  he  might 
summon  that  citizen  to  take  the  office  or  to  exchange  properties. 

2  Commander  of  a  ship  of  war. 

3  The  person  who  supplied  a  properly  trained  choir  in  the  production  of 
the  tragedies  or  comedies. 


Education  of  Women  in  Greece 


39 


order  that  she  might  see  as  little,  hear  as  little,  and  ask  as 
few  questions  as  possible  ?  6.  Does  it  not  appear  to  you 

to  be  quite  sufficient,  if  she  did  but  know,  when  she  came, 
how  to  take  wool  and  make  a  garment,  and  had  seen  how 
to  apportion  the  tasks  of  spinning  among  the  maid-ser¬ 
vants  ?  for  as  to  what  concerns  the  appetite,  Socrates,’ 
added  he,  ‘  which  seems  to  me  a  most  important  part  of 
instruction  both  for  a  man  and  for  a  woman,  she  came  to 
me  extremely  well  instructed.’  7.  ‘  But  as  to  other  things, 
Ischomachus,’  said  I,  ‘  did  you  yourself  instruct  your  wife, 
so  that  she  should  be  qualified  to  attend  to  the  affairs  belong¬ 
ing  to  her?’  ‘Not,  indeed,’  replied  Ischomachus,  ‘until 
I  had  offered  sacrifice,  and  prayed  that  it  might  be  my  for¬ 
tune  to  teach,  and  hers  to  learn,  what  would  be  best  for 
both  of  us.’  8.  ‘Did  your  wife,  then,’  said  I,  ‘join  with 
you  in  offering  sacrifice,  and  in  praying  for  these  bless¬ 
ings  ?  ’  ‘Certainly,’  answered  Ischomachus,  ‘and  she 
made  many  vows  to  the  gods  that  she  would  be  such  as 
she  ought  to  be,  and  showed  plainly  that  she  was  not 
likely  to  disregard  what  was  taught  her.’  9.  ‘  In  the 
name  of  the  gods,  Ischomachus,  tell  me,’  said  I,  ‘what 
you  began  to  teach  her  first ;  for  I  shall  have  more  pleas¬ 
ure  in  hearing  you  give  this  account,  than  if  you  were  to 
give  me  a  description  of  the  finest  gymnastic  or  equestrian 
games.’  10.  ‘Well,  then,  Socrates,’  returned  Ischoma¬ 
chus,  ‘when  she  grew  familiarized  and  domesticated  with 
me,  so  that  we  conversed  freely  together,  I  began  to  ques¬ 
tion  her  in  some  such  way  as  this:  “Tell  me,  my  dear 
wife,  have  you  ever  considered  with  what  view  I  married 
you,  and  with  what  object  your  parents  gave  you  to  me? 

11.  For  that  there  was  no  want  of  other  persons  with 
whom  we  might  have  shared  our  respective  beds  must,  I 
am  sure,  be  evident  to  you  as  well  as  to  me.  But  when  I 
considered  for  myself,  and  your  parents  for  you,  whom  we 
might  select  as  the  best  partner  for  a  house  and  children, 
I  preferred  you,  and  your  parents,  as  it  appears,  preferred 
me,  out  of  those  who  were  possible  objects  of  choice. 

12.  If,  then,  the  gods  should  ever  grant  children  to  be 
born  to  us,  we  shall  then  consult  together,  with  regard  to 
them,  how  we  may  bring  them  up  as  well  as  possible ;  for 
it  will  be  a  common  advantage  to  both  of  us  to  find  them 


Instruction 
of  wife  by 
husband. 


As  to  their 

common 

interests. 


Duties  of  a 
wife  in  care 
of  the  house¬ 
hold  ; 


40  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

of  the  utmost  service  as  supporters  and  maintainers  of  our 
old  age.  13.  At  present,  however,  this  is  our  common 
household ;  for  I  deposit  all  that  I  have  as  in  common 
between  us,  and  you  put  everything  that  you  have  brought 
into  our  common  stock.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to  consider 
which  of  the  two  has  contributed  the  greater  share ;  but 
we  ought  to  feel  assured  that  whichsoever  of  us  is  the 
better  manager  of  our  common  fortune  will  give  the  more 
valuable  service.”  14.  To  these  remarks,  Socrates,  my 
wife  replied,  “  In  what  respect  could  I  cooperate  with  you? 
What  power  have  I  ?  Everything  lies  with  you.  My 
duty,  my  mother  told  me,  was  to  conduct  myself  dis¬ 
creetly.”  15.  “Yes,  by  Jupiter,  my  dear  wife,”  replied  I, 
“  and  my  father  told  me  the  same.  But  it  is  the  part  of 
discreet  people,  as  well  husbands  as  wives,  to  act  in  such 
a  manner  that  their  property  may  be  in  the  best  possible 
condition,  and  that  as  large  additions  as  possible  may  be 
made  to  it  by  honourable  and  just  means.”  16.  “And 
what  do  you  see,”  said  my  wife,  “that  I  can  do  to  assist  in 
increasing  our  property?”  “Endeavor  by  all  means,” 
answered  I,  “  to  do  in  the  best  possible  manner  those 
duties  which  the  gods  have  qualified  you  to  do,  and  which 
custom  approves.”  17.  “  And  what  are  they  ?  ”  asked  she. 
“I  consider,”  replied  I,  “that  they  are  duties  of  no  small 
importance,  unless  indeed  the  queen  bee  in  a  hive  is 
appointed  for  purposes  of  small  importance.  18.  For  to 
me,”  ’  continued  he,  ‘“the  gods,  my  dear  wife,”  said  I, 
“  seem  certainly  to  have  united  that  pair  of  beings,  which 
is  called  male  and  female,  with  the  greatest  judgment,  that 
they  may  be  in  the  highest  degree  serviceable  to  each  other 
in  their  connexion.  19.  In  the  first  place,  the  pair  are 
brought  together  to  produce  offspring,  that  the  races  of 
animals  may  not  become  extinct ;  and  to  human  beings,  at 
least,  it  is  granted  to  have  supporters  for  their  old  age 
from  this  union.  20.  For  human  beings,  also,  their  mode 
of  life  is  not,  like  that  of  cattle,  in  the  open  air ;  but  they 
have  need,  we  see,  of  houses.  It  is  accordingly  necessary 
for  those  who  would  have  something  to  bring  into  their 
houses  to  have  people  to  perform  the  requisite  employ¬ 
ments  in  the  open  air ;  for  tilling,  and  sowing,  and  plant¬ 
ing,  and  pasturage  are  all  employments  for  the  open  air; 


Education  of  Women  in  Greece  41 

and  from  these  employments  the  necessaries  of  life  are 
procured.  21.  But  when  these  necessaries  have  been 
brought  into  the  house,  there  is  need  of  some  one  to  take 
care  of  them,  and  to  do  whatever  duties  require  to  be  done 
under  shelter.  The  rearing  of  young  children  also  demands 
shelter,  as  well  as  the  preparation  of  food  from  the  fruits  of 
the  earth,  and  the  making  of  clothes  from  wool.  22.  And 
as  both  these  sorts  of  employments,  alike  those  without 
doors,  and  those  within,  require  labour  and  care,  the  gods, 
as  it  seems  to  me,”  said  I,  “  have  plainly  adapted  the  nature 
of  the  woman  for  works  and  duties  within  doors,  and  that 
of  the  man  for  works  and  duties  without  doors.  23.  For 
the  divinity  has  fitted  the  body  and  mind  of  the  man  to  be 
better  able  to  bear  cold,  and  heat,  and  travelling,  and  mili¬ 
tary  exercises,  so  that  he  has  imposed  upon  him  the  work 
without  doors  ;  and  by  having  formed  the  body  of  the 
woman  to  be  less  able  to  bear  such  exertions,  he  appears 
to  me  to  have  laid  upon  her,”  said  I,  “the  duties  within 
doors.  24.  But  knowing  that  he  had  given  the  woman 
by  nature,  and  laid  upon  her,  the  office  of  rearing  young 
children,  he  has  also  bestowed  upon  her  a  greater  portion 
of  love  for  her  newly-born  offspring  than  on  the  man. 
25.  Since,  too,  the  divinity  has  laid  upon  the  woman  the 
duty  of  guarding  what  is  brought  into  the  house,  he, 
knowing  that  the  mind,  by  being  timid,  is  not  less  adapted 
for  guarding,  has  given  a  larger  share  of  timidity  to  the 
woman  than  to  the  man  ;  and  knowing  also  that  if  any  one 
injures  him  who  is  engaged  in  the  occupations  without,  he 
must  defend  himself,  he  has  on  that  account  given  a 
greater  portion  of  boldness  to  the  man.  26.  But  as  it  is 
necessary  for  both  alike  to  give  and  to  receive,  he  has 
bestowed  memory  and  the  power  of  attention  upon  both 
impartially,  so  that  you  cannot  distinguish  whether  the 
female  or  the  male  has  the  larger  portion  of  them. 
27.  The  power  of  being  temperate  also  in  what  is  neces¬ 
sary  he  has  conferred  in  equal  measure  upon  both,  and 
has  allowed  that  whichsoever  of  the  two  is  superior  in 
this  virtue,  whether  the  man  or  the  woman,  shall  receive 
a  greater  portion  of  the  benefit  arising  from  it.  28.  But 
as  the  nature  of  both  is  not  fully  adapted  for  all  these 
requirements,  they  in  consequence  stand  in  greater  need 


and  in  care 
of  children. 


42  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Duties 
imposed 
upon  the 
wife  by 
divine,  civil, 
and  natural 
law. 


of  aid  from  one  another,  and  the  pair  are  of  greater  service 
to  each  other,  when  the  one  is  able  to  do  those  things  in 
which  the  other  is  deficient.  29.  As  we  know,  then,  my 
dear  wife,”  continued  I,  “what  is  appointed  to  each  of  us 
by  Providence,  it  is  incumbent  on  us  to  discharge  as  well 
as  we  can  that  which  each  of  us  has  to  do. 

30.  “  ‘  “  The  law,  too,”  I  told  her,’  he  proceeded,  ‘  “  gives 
its  approbation  to  these  arrangements,  by  uniting  the  man 
and  the  woman ;  and  as  the  divinity  has  made  them  part¬ 
ners,  as  it  were,  in  their  offspring,  so  the  law  ordains  them 
to  be  sharers  in  household  affairs.  The  law  also  shows 
that  those  things  are  more  becoming  to  each  which  the 
divinity  has  qualified  each  to  do  with  greater  facility ;  for 
it  is  more  becoming  for  the  woman  to  stay  within  doors 
than  to  roam  abroad,  but  to  the  man  it  is  less  creditable  to 
remain  at  home  than  to  attend  to  things  out  of  doors. 
31.  And  if  any  one  acts  contrary  to  what  the  divinity  has 
fitted  him  to  do,  he  will,  while  he  violates  the  order  of 
things,  possibly  not  escape  the  notice  of  the  gods,  and  will 
pay  the  penalty  whether  of  neglecting  his  own  duties  or  of 
interfering  with  those  of  his  wife.  32.  The  queen  of  the 
bees,”  I  added,  “appears  to  me  to  discharge  such  duties 
as  are  appointed  to  her  by  the  divinity.”  “And  what 
duties,”  inquired  my  wife,  “has  the  queen  bee  to  perform, 
that  she  should  be  made  an  example  for  the  business 
which  I  have  to  do  ?  ”  33.  “  She,  remaining  within  the 

hive,”  answered  I,  “  does  not  allow  the  bees  to  be  idle,  but 
sends  out  to  their  duty  those  who  ought  to  work  abroad  ; 
and  whatever  each  of  them  brings  in,  she  takes  cognizance 
of  it  and  receives  it,  and  watches  over  the  store  until  there 
is  occasion  to  use  it ;  and  when  the  time  for  using  it  is  come, 
she  dispenses  to  each  bee  its  just  due.  34.  She  also 
presides  over  the  construction  of  the  cells  within,  that 
they  may  be  formed  beautifully  and  expeditiously.  She 
attends,  too,  to  the  rising  progeny,  that  they  may  be  prop¬ 
erly  reared ;  and  when  the  young  bees  are  grown  up,  and 
are  fit  for  work,  she  sends  out  a  colony  of  them  under  some 
leader  taken  from  among  the  younger  bees.”  35.  “Will 
it  then  be  necessary  for  me,”  said  my  wife,  “  to  do  such 
things  ?  ”  “  It  will  certainly  be  necessary  for  you,”  said  I, 

“  to  remain  at  home,  and  to  send  out  such  of  the  labourers 


43 


Education  of  Women  in  Greece 

as  have  to  work  abroad,  to  their  duties ;  and  over  such  as 
have  business  to  do  in  the  house  you  must  exercise  a  watch¬ 
ful  superintendence.  36.  Whatever  is  brought  into  the 
house,  you  must  take  charge  of  it ;  whatever  portion  of  it 
is  required  for  use  you  must  give  it  out;  and  whatever 
should  be  laid  by,  you  must  take  account  of  it  and  keep  it 
safe,  so  that  the  provision  stored  up  for  a  year,  for  exam¬ 
ple,  may  not  be  expended  in  a  month.  Whenever  wool  is 
brought  home  to  you,  you  must  take  care  that  garments 
be  made  for  those  who  want  them.  You  must  also  be  care¬ 
ful  that  the  dried  provisions  may  be  in  a  proper  condition 
for  eating.  3 7.  One  of  your  duties,  however,”  I  added, 
“  will  perhaps  appear  somewhat  disagreeable,  namely,  that 
whoever  of  all  the  servants  may  fall  sick,  you  must  take 
charge  of  him,  that  he  may  be  recovered.”  38.  “Nay, 
assuredly,”  returned  my  wife,  “  that  will  be  a  most  agree¬ 
able  office,  if  such  as  receive  good  treatment  are  likely  to 
make  a  grateful  return,  and  to  become  more  attached  to 
me  than  before.”  Delighted  with  her  answer,’  continued 
Ischomachus,  ‘  I  said  to  her,  “  Are  not  the  bees,  my  dear 
wife,  in  consequence  of  some  such  care  on  the  part  of  the 
queen  of  the  hive,  so  affected  toward  her,  that,  when  she 
quits  the  hive,  no  one  of  them  thinks  of  deserting  her,  but 
all  follow  in  her  train  ?  ”  39.  “  I  should  wonder,  however,” 

answered  my  wife,  “if  the  duties  of  leader  do  not  rather 
belong  to  you  than  to  me ;  for  my  guardianship  of  what  is 
in  the  house,  and  distribution  of  it,  would  appear  rather 
ridiculous,  I  think,  if  you  did  not  take  care  that  something 
might  be  brought  in  from  out  of  doors.”  40.  “  And  on  the 
other  hand,”  returned  I,  “  my  bringing  in  would  appear 
ridiculous,  unless  there  were  somebody  to  take  care  of 
what  is  brought  in.  Do  you  not  see,”  said  I,  “  how  those 
who  are  said  to  draw  water  in  a  bucket  full  of  holes  are 
pitied,  as  they  evidently  labour  in  vain  ?  ”  “  Certainly,” 

replied  my  wife,  “for  they  are  indeed  wretched,  if  they 
are  thus  employed.” 

41.  “  ‘  “  Some  other  of  your  occupations,  my  dear  wife,” 
continued  I,  “will  be  pleasing  to  you.  For  instance,  when 
you  take  a  young  woman  who  does  not  know  how  to  spin, 
and  make  her  skilful  at  it,  and  she  thus  becomes  of  twice 
as  much  value  to  you.  Or  when  you  take  one  who  is  igno- 


Instruction 
of  servants 
by  the  wife. 


44  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

rant  of  the  duties  of  a  housekeeper  or  servant,  and,  having 
made  her  accomplished,  trustworthy,  and  handy,  render 
her  of  the  highest  value.  Or  when  it  is  in  your  power  to 
do  services  to  such  of  your  attendants  as  are  steady  and 
useful,  while,  if  any  one  is  found  transgressing,  you  can 
inflict  punishment.  42.  But  you  will  experience  the  great¬ 
est  of  pleasures,  if  you  show  yourself  superior  to  me,  and 
render  me  your  servant,  and  have  no  cause  to  fear  that,  as 
life  advances,  you  may  become  less  respected  in  your  house¬ 
hold,  but  may  trust  that,  while  you  grow  older,  the  better 
consort  you  prove  to  me,  and  the  more  faithful  guardian  of 
your  house  for  your  children,  so  much  the  more  will  you 
be  esteemed  by  your  family.  43.  For  what  is  good  and 
honourable,”  I  added,  “gains  increase  of  respect,  not  from 
beauty  of  person,  but  from  merits  directed  to  the  benefit 
of  human  life.”  Such  were  the  subjects,  Socrates,  on  which, 
as  far  as  I  remember,  I  first  conversed  seriously  with  my 
wife.’ 


Chapter  viii 


Results  of 

previous 

training. 


Importance 
of  order  in 
the  house¬ 
hold. 


I.  “‘Did  you  then  observe,  Ischomachus,’  said  I,  ‘that 
your  wife  was  at  all  the  more  incited  to  carefulness  by 
your  remarks?’  ‘Indeed  I  did,’  replied  Ischomachus, 
‘  and  I  saw  her  on  one  occasion  greatly  concerned  and  put 
to  the  blush,  because,  when  I  asked  for  something  that 
had  been  brought  into  the  house,  she  was  unable  to  give 
it  me.  2.  Perceiving  that  she  was  in  great  trouble, 
however,  I  said,  “  Do  not  be  cast  down,  my  dear  wife, 
because  you  cannot  give  me  what  I  am  asking  you  for.  It 
is  indeed  pure  poverty  not  to  have  a  thing  to  use  when  you 
need  it ;  but  our  present  want  —  not  to  be  able  to  find  a 
thing  when  you  seek  it  —  is  of  a  less  serious  nature  than 
not  to  seek  it  at  all,  knowing  that  it  is  not  in  your  posses¬ 
sion.  However,”  added  I,  “  you  are  not  in  fault  on  the 
present  occasion,  but  I,  as  I  did  not  direct  you,  when  I 
gave  you  the  articles,  where  each  of  them  ought  to  be 
deposited,  so  that  you  might  know  how  you  ought  to 
arrange  them  and  whence  to  take  them.  3.  There  is 
indeed  nothing,  my  dear  wife,  more  useful  or  more  credit¬ 
able  to  people  than  order.  A  chorus  of  singers  and  danc¬ 
ers,  for  instance,  consists  of  a  number  of  persons;  but 


45 


Education  of  Women  in  Greece 

when  they  do  whatever  each  of  them  happens  to  fancy, 
all  appears  confusion,  and  disagreeable  to  behold ;  but 
when  they  act  and  speak  in  concert,  the  same  persons 
prove  themselves  worthy  of  being  seen  and  heard.  .  .  .  ” 
ii.  ‘“I  once  saw,  I  think,  the  most  beautiful  and  accu¬ 
rate  arrangement  of  implements  possible,  Socrates,  when 
I  went  on  board  that  large  Phoenician  vessel  to  look  over 
it ;  for  I  beheld  a  vast  number  of  articles  severally 
arranged  in  an  extremely  small  space.  12.  For  the  ship,’ 
continued  he,  ‘is  brought  into  harbour  and  taken  out 
again  by  means  of  various  instruments  of  wood  and  tow ; 
it  pursues  its  voyage  with  the  aid  of  much  that  is  called 
suspended  tackle ;  it  is  equipped  with  many  machines  to 
oppose  hostile  vessels ;  it  carries  about  in  it  many  weapons 
for  the  men  ;  it  conveys  all  the  utensils,  such  as  people  use 
in  a  house,  for  each  company  that  take  their  meals  together ; 
and,  in  addition  to  all  this,  it  is  freighted  with  merchandise, 
which  the  owner  of  the  ship  transports  in  it  for  the  purpose 
of  profit.  13.  And  all  the  things  of  which  I  am  speak¬ 
ing,’  continued  he,  ‘were  stowed  in  a  space  not  much  larger 
than  is  contained  in  a  room  that  holds  half  a  score  dinner- 
couches.  Yet  I  observed  that  they  were  severally  arranged 
in  such  a  manner  that  they*  were  not  in  the  way  of  one 
another,  nor  required  anybody  to  seek  for  them,  nor  were 
unprepared  for  use,  nor  difficult  to  remove  from  their  places, 
so  as  to  cause  any  delay  when  it  was  necessary  to  employ 
them  suddenly.  14.  The  pilot’s  officer,  too,  who  is  called 
the  man  of  the  prow,  I  found  so  well  acquainted  with  the 
location  of  them  all,  that  he  could  tell,  even  when  out  of 
sight  of  them,  where  each  severally  lay,  and  how  many 
there  were,  not  less  readily  than  a  man  who  knows  his 
letters  can  tell  how  many  there  are  in  the  name  Socrates, 
and  where  each  of  them  stands.  15.  I  saw,’  pursued 
Ischomachus,  ‘  this  very  man  inspecting,  at  his  leisure,  all 
the  implements  that  it  is  necessary  to  use  in  a  ship,  and, 
wondering  at  his  minute  examination,  I  asked  him  what  he 
was  doing.  “  I  am  examining,  stranger,”  said  he,  “in  case 
anything  should  happen,  in  what  state  everything  in  the 
vessel  is,  and  whether  anything  is  wanting,  or  is  placed  so 
as  to  be  inconvenient  for  use.  16.  For,”  said  he,  “there 
is  no  time,  when  heaven  sends  a  storm  over  the  sea,  either 


The  beauty 
of  order. 


46  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

to  seek  for  what  may  be  wanting,  or  to  hand  out  what  may 
be  difficult  to  use ;  for  the  gods  threaten  and  punish  the 
negligent ;  and  if  they  but  forbear  from  destroying  those 
who  do  nothing  wrong,  we  must  be  very  well  content ; 
while,  if  they  preserve  even  those  that  attend  to  everything 
quite  properly,  much  gratitude  is  due  to  them.”  17.  I, 
therefore,  having  observed  the  accuracy  of  this  arrange¬ 
ment,  said  to  my  wife,  that  it  would  be  extremely  stupid 
in  us,  if  people  in  ships,  which  are  comparatively  small 
places,  find  room  for  their  things,  and,  though  they  are 
violently  tossed  about,  nevertheless  keep  them  in  order, 
and,  even  in  the  greatest  alarm,  still  find  out  how  to  get 
what  they  want;  and  if  we,  who  have  large  separate  reposi¬ 
tories  in  our  house  for  everything,  and  our  house  firmly 
planted  on  the  ground,  should  not  discover  excellent  and 
easily-found  places  for  our  several  articles  ;  —  how  could 
this,  I  say,  be  anything  but  extreme  stupidity  in  us  ? 

18.  “  ‘“How  excellent  a  thing  a  regular  arrangement  of 
articles  is,  and  how  easy  it  is  to  find,  in  a  house,  a  place  such 
as  is  suitable  to  put  everything,  I  have  sufficiently  shown. 
19.  But  how  beautiful  an  appearance  it  has,  too,  when 
shoes,  for  instance,  of  whatever  kind  they  are,  are  arranged 
in  order  ;  how  beautiful  it  is  to  see  garments,  of  whatever 
kind,  deposited  in  their  several  places  ;  how  beautiful  it  is 
to  see  bed-clothes,  and  brazen  vessels,  and  table  furniture, 
so  arranged ;  and  (what,  most  of  all,  a  person  might  laugh 
at,  not  indeed  a  grave  person,  but  a  jester),  I  say,  that  pots 
have  a  graceful  appearance  when  they  are  placed  in  regu¬ 
lar  order.  20.  Other  articles  somehow  appear,  too,  when 
regularly  arranged,  more  beautiful  in  consequence ;  for  the 
several  sorts  of  vessels  seem  like  so  many  choral  bands ; 
and  the  space  that  is  between  them  pleases  the  eye,  when 
every  sort  of  vessel  is  set  clear  of  it;  just  as  a  body  of 
singers  and  dancers,  moving  in  a  circle,  is  not  only  in  itself 
a  beautiful  sight,  but  the  space  in  the  middle  of  it,  being 
open  and  clear,  is  agreeable  to  the  eye.  21.  Whether 
what  I  say  is  true,  my  dear  wife,”  said  I,  “we  may  make 
trial,  without  suffering  any  loss,  or  taking  any  extraordi¬ 
nary  trouble.  Nor  ought  we  at  all  to  labour  under  the 
apprehension  that  it  will  be  difficult  to  find  a  person  who 
will  learn  the  places  for  every  article,  and  remember  how 


47 


Education  of  Women  in  Greece 

to  keep  each  of  them  separate  ;  22.  for  we  know  very  well 
that  the  whole  city  contains  ten  thousand  times  as  much 
as  our  house,  and  yet,  whichsoever  of  the  servants  you  order 
to  buy  anything  and  bring  it  to  you  from  the  market-place, 
not  one  of  them  will  be  in  perplexity,  but  every  one  will 
show  that  he  knows  whither  he  must  go  to  fetch  any 
article.  For  this,”  added  I,  “there  is  no  other  reason 
than  that  each  article  is  deposited  in  its  appointed  place. 
23.  But  if  you  should  seek  for  a  person,  and  sometimes 
even  for  one  who  is  on  his  part  seeking  you,  you  would 
often  give  up  the  search  in  despair  before  you  find  him ; 
and  for  this  there  is  no  other  cause,  than  that  it  is  not 
appointed  where  the  particular  person  is  to  await  you.” 
Such  was  the  conversation  that  I  had  with  my  wife,  as  far 
as  I  remember,  concerning  the  arrangement  and  distinction 
of  articles.’ 

Chapter  ix 

1.  “  ‘  And  what  was  the  result,’  said  I,  ‘my  dear  Ischo- 
machus  ?  Did  your  wife  appear  to  attend  to  any  of  the 
matters  which  you  took  so  much  pains  to  impress  upon 
her  ?  ’  ‘  What  else  did  she  do  but  promise  that  she  would 

attend  to  what  I  said,  and  manifest  the  greatest  pleas¬ 
ure,  as  if  she  had  found  relief  from  perplexity  ?  and  she 
requested  me  to  arrange  the  various  articles,  as  soon  as  I 
could,  in  the  manner  which  I  had  proposed.’  2.  ‘  And 
how,  Ischomachus,’  said  I,  ‘  did  you  arrange  them  for 
her  ?  ’  ‘  What  else  could  I  do  but  determine  upon  show¬ 

ing  her,  in  the  first  place,  the  capacity  of  the  house  ?  For 
it  is  not  adorned  with  decorations,  but  the  apartments  in 
it  are  constructed  with  such  a  view  that  they  may  be  as 
convenient  receptacles  as  possible  for  the  things  that  are 
to  be  placed  in  them ;  so  that  they  themselves  invite  what¬ 
ever  is  adapted  for  them  respectively.  3.  Thus  the  inner 
chamber,  being  in  a  secure  part  of  the  house,  calls  for  the 
most  valuable  couch  coverings  and  vessels ;  the  dry  parts 
of  the  building  for  the  corn  ;  the  cool  places  for  the  wine ; 
and  the  well-lighted  portions  for  such  articles  of  workman¬ 
ship,  and  vases,  as  require  a  clear  light.  4.  I  pointed  out 
to  her,  too,  that  the  apartments  for  people  to  live  in,  which 
are  well  ornamented,  are  cool  in  the  summer  and  exposed 


The  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the 
wife  con¬ 
cerning  the 
apartments 
of  the  house 
hold. 


Duties  of 
the  wife  in 
caring  for 
household 
furnishings. 


48  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education- 

to  the  sun  in  winter ;  and  I  made  her  notice  as  to  the 
whole  house  how  it  lies  open  to  the  south,  so  that  it 
is  plain  it  has  plenty  of  sun  in  winter,  and  plenty  of 
shade  in  summer.  ...  6.  When  we  had  gone  through 

these  places,’  he  continued,  ‘we  then  proceeded  to  classify 
our  goods.  We  began  by  collecting,  first  of  all,  whatever 
we  use  for  offering  sacrifices ;  after  this,  we  arranged  the 
dresses  for  women,  such  as  are  suited  for  festival  days  ; 
and  then  the  equipments  for  men,  as  well  for  festivities  as 
for  warfare;  and  next  the  bed-covering  in  the  women’s 
apartments,  the  bed-coverings  in  the  men’s  apartments, 
the  shoes  for  the  women  and  the  shoes  for  the  men. 
7.  Of  utensils  there  were  distinct  collections,  one  of 
instruments  for  spinning,  another  of  those  for  preparing 
corn,  another  of  those  for  cooking,  another  of  those  for 
the  bath,  another  of  those  for  kneading  bread,  another  of 
those  for  the  table.  These  in  general  we  divided  into  two 
sorts,  such  as  we  have  to  use  constantly,  and  such  as  are 
required  only  at  festal  entertainments.  8.  We  also  made 
one  assortment  of  what  would  be  used  in  a  month,  and 
another  of  what  was  computed  to  last  for  a  year ;  for  in 
this  way  it  is  less  likely  to  escape  our  knowledge  how  par¬ 
ticular  things  are  expended.  When  we  had  thus  distin¬ 
guished  all  our  goods  into  classes,  we  conveyed  them 
severally  to  the  places  best  suited  for  them.  9.  After¬ 
wards,  whatever  utensils  the  servants  require  daily,  such 
as  those  for  preparing  corn,  for  cooking,  for  spinning,  and 
any  others  of  that  sort,  we  pointed  out  to  those  who  use 
them,  the  places  where  they  were  to  put  them,  and  then 
committed  them  to  their  keeping,  charging  them  to  keep 
them  safely  ;  10.  but  such  as  we  use  only  for  festival  days, 
for  entertaining  guests,  or  only  occasionally  at  long  inter¬ 
vals,  we  committed,  after  pointing  out  the  places  for  them, 
and  numbering  and  making  lists  of  them,  to  the  house¬ 
keeper,  and  told  her  to  give  out  any  of  them  to  whatever 
servant  needed  them,  to  bear  in  mind  to  which  of  them 
she  gave  any  one,  and,  after  receiving  them  back,  to  de¬ 
posit  them  respectively  in  the  places  from  which  she  took 
them. 

11.  “‘Of  the  housekeeper  we  made  choice  after  con¬ 
sidering  which  of  the  female  servants  appeared  to  have 


Education  of  Women  in  Greece 


49 


most  self-restraint  in  eating,  and  wine,  and  sleep,  and  con¬ 
verse  with  the  male  sex;  and,  in  addition  to  this,  which 
seemed  to  have  the  best  memory,  and  which  appeared  to 
have  forethought,  that  she  might  not  incur  punishment 
from  us  for  neglect,  and  to  consider  how,  by  gratifying 
us,  she  might  gain  some  mark  of  approbation  in  return. 
12.  We  formed  her  to  entertain  feelings  of  affection 
toward  us,  giving  her  a  share  in  our  pleasure  when  we  had 
an  occasion  of  rejoicing,  and  consulting  her,  if  anything 
troublesome  occurred,  with  reference  to  it.  We  also  led 
her  to  become  desirous  of  increasing  our  property,  by 
stimulating  her  to  take  accounts  of  it,  and  making  her  in 
some  degree  partaker  of  our  prosperity.  13.  We  also 
excited  in  her  a  love  of  honesty,  by  paying  more  respect 
to  the  well-principled  than  to  the  unprincipled,  and  show¬ 
ing  her  that  they  lived  in  greater  plenty  and  in  better 
style.  We  then  installed  her  in  her  appointment.  14.  But 
in  addition  to  all  this,  Socrates,’  said  he,  ‘  I  told  my  wife 
that  there  would  be  no  profit  in  all  these  arrangements, 
unless  she  herself  took  care  that  the  appointed  order  for 
everything  should  be  preserved.  I  also  instructed  her 
that  in  the  best-regulated  political  communities  it  is  not 
thought  sufficient  by  the  citizens  merely  to  make  good  laws, 
but  that  they  also  appoint  guardians  of  the  laws,  who, 
overlooking  the  state,  commend  him  who  acts  in  conform¬ 
ity  with  the  laws,  and,  if  any  one  transgresses  the  laws, 
punish  him.  15.  I  accordingly  desired  my  wife,’  con¬ 
tinued  he,  ‘  to  consider  herself  the  guardian  of  the  laws 
established  in  the  house,  and  to  inspect  the  household 
furniture,  whenever  she  thought  proper,  as  the  commander 
of  a  garrison  inspects  his  sentinels ;  to  signify  her  appro¬ 
bation  if  everything  was  in  good  condition,  as  the  senate 
signifies  its  approval  of  the  horses  and  horse-soldiers ;  to 
praise  and  honour  the  deserving  like  a  queen,  according 
to  her  means,  and  to  rebuke  and  disgrace  any  one  that 
required  such  treatment.  16.  But  I  moreover  admonished 
her,’  added  he,  ‘that  she  would  have  no  reason  to  be 
displeased,  if  I  imposed  on  her  more  trouble  with  regard 
to  our  property  than  I  laid  on  the  servants ;  remarking 
to  her,  that  servants  have  only  so  far  a  concern  with  their 
master’s  property  as  to  carry  it,  or  keep  it  in  order,  or 

E 


Training  of 
the  wife  as 
guardian  of 
the  house¬ 
hold. 


50  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

take  care  of  it ;  but  that  no  servant  has  any  power  of 
using  it  unless  his  master  puts  it  into  his  hands,  while 
it  belongs  all  to  the  master  himself,  so  that  he  may  use 
any  portion  of  it  for  whatever  purpose  he  pleases.  17.  To 
him  therefore  that  receives  the  greatest  benefit  from  its 
preservation,  and  suffers  the  greatest  loss  by  its  destruc¬ 
tion,  I  showed  her  that  the  greatest  interest  in  its  safety 
must  belong/ 

18.  “  ‘Well  then,  Ischomachus,’  said  I,  ‘how  did  your 

wife,  on  hearing  these  instructions,  show  herself  disposed 
to  comply  with  your  wishes  ?  ’  ‘  She  assured  me,  Soc¬ 

rates/  replied  he,  ‘that  I  did  not  judge  rightly  of  her, 
if  I  thought  that  I  was  imposing  on  her  what  was  dis¬ 
agreeable,  in  telling  her  that  she  must  take  care  of  the 
property;  for  she  remarked/  said  he,  ‘that  it  would  have 
been  more  disagreeable  to  her  if  I  had  charged  her  to 
neglect  her  property,  than  if  she  were  required  to  take 
care  of  the  household  goods.  19.  For  it  seems  to  be 
a  provision  of  nature/  concluded  he,  ‘  that  as  it  is  easier 
for  a  well-disposed  woman  to  take  care  of  her  children 
than  to  neglect  them,  so  it  is  more  pleasing  (as  he  thought, 
he  said),  for  a  right-minded  woman  to  attend  to  her  prop¬ 
erty,  which,  as  being  her  own,  affords  her  gratification, 
than  to  be  neglectful  of  it/ 


Chapter  x 

“  On  hearing  that  his  wife  had  made  him  such  a  reply/’ 
proceeded  Socrates,  “  I  said,  ‘  By  Juno,  Ischomachus,  you 
show  us  that  your  wife  is  possessed  of  a  manly  understand¬ 
ing.’  ‘  And  accordingly,’  returned  Ischomachus,  ‘  I  wish 
to  give  you  other  instances  of  her  extreme  nobleness  of 
mind,  in  matters  in  which  she  complied  wfth  my  wishes 
after  hearing  them  only  once.’  ‘  Of  what  nature  were 
they  ?  ’  said  I ;  ‘  pray  tell  us  :  for  it  is  a  far  greater  pleas¬ 
ure  to  hear  of  the  merit  of  a  living  woman,  than  if  Zeuxis 
were  to  exhibit  to  me  the  most  beautiful  representation  of 
a  woman  in  a  painting/  .  .  . 


III.  THE  NEW  GREEK  EDUCATION 


The  Period.  —  The  introduction  of  new  educational  ideas 
and  practices  was,  of  course,  gradual,  and  no  definite  date 
can  be  assigned  for  the  beginning  of  the  period.  But  the 
transition  that  took  place  in  Greek  society,  in  the  fifth 
century,  particularly  at  Athens,  was  comparatively  rapid. 
Athens,  hereafter  the  centre  of  Greek  life,  was  the  centre 
of  this  change,  though  similar  changes,  less  pronounced  in 
character,  occurred  elsewhere.  The  discussion  of  the  new 
education  is,  however,  directly  applicable  only  to  Athens. 
The  change  may  be  said  to  have  occurred  in  the  period  of 
Athenian  political  supremacy,  between  the  close  of  the 
Persian  Wars  (479  b.c.)  and  the  outbreak  of  the  Pelopon¬ 
nesian  War  in  431  b.c.  While  the  new  ideas  and  practices 
became  dominant,  it  was  not  without  a  struggle  with  the 
old,  which  had  many  worthy  adherents  throughout  the  fifth 
and  the  fourth  centuries.  The  dominant  educational  char¬ 
acteristic  of  this  period,  then,  was  the  conflict  itself,  in 
which  the  new  practices  always  held  the  stronger  posi¬ 
tion.  The  sources  given  in  this  section  relate  to  this 
conflict. 

The  new  eductional  ideas  and  practices  were  not  limited 
to  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries,  but  were  characteristic 
of  Greek  life  thereafter.  Yet  this  period  of  strife  was  dis 
tinct  from  the  period  beginning  with  the  Macedonian  era, 
when  the  new  education  had  become  thoroughly  estab¬ 
lished,  and  tended  to  become  cosmopolitan  as  Greece 

51 


52  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

extended  her  sway  in  the  world  of  intellect  and  art  both 
to  the  east  and  the  west. 

This  period  of  the  fifth  and  the  fourth  centuries  had 
certain  well-defined  characteristics  which  may  be  included 
in  the  one,  the  growth  of  individualism.  Foremost  among 
these  characteristics  is  the  fact  that  Athens  had  now 
become  thoroughly  democratic  in  its  political  constitution 
and  practices.  The  reforms  of  Pericles  had  completed 
the  democratization  begun  earlier  by  Solon  and  Clisthenes. 
Every  citizen  was  now  qualified  to  hold  office,  and  each 
was  required  to  render  political  as  well  as  military  service. 
Upon  the  dicasts,  or  popular  juries,  six  thousand  citizens 
served  each  year.  The  functions  of  these  dicasts  were  in 
private  cases  judicial ;  but  their  decisions  in  public  affairs 
became  not  only  judicial,  but  legislative.  During  this 
period  Athens  converted  her  leadership  in  the  Delian 
league  into  an  imperial  control.  This,  while  of  but  short 
duration,  demanded  an  extension  of  political  and  diplomatic 
activities  and  a  broadening  of  political  and  social  ideas.  It 
called  for  a  wholly  new  type  of  ability,  a  versatility  unknown 
and  foreign  to  the  earlier  times.  This  leadership  was 
gained  and  held  by  intellectual  supremacy  rather  than  by 
military  power.  Though  the  political  leadership  was  lost, 
the  intellectual  supremacy  was  retained.  Along  with  the 
political  development  went  a  commercial  expansion  and  a 
massing  of  wealth  through  an  industrial  growth  that  gave 
a  means  of  fostering  intellectual  and  artistic  activities. 
While  there  yet  remained  many  evidences  of  intolerance 
of  the  democracy,  as  seen  in  the  cases  of  Themistocles, 
Aristides,  Socrates,  Thucydides,  and  others,  there  went 
along  with  the  political  and  commercial  expansion  a  toler¬ 
ance  in  ideas  that  had  not  been  characteristic  of  early 


The  New  Greek  Education 


53 


Athens.  This  tolerance  extended  to  opinions  as  well  as 
to  actions,  and  as  a  result  there  developed  a  radical 
change  in  religious  and  ethical  ideas.  The  period  became 
one  of  scepticism,  and  the  old  religious  myths  and  legends 
lost  their  social  and  religious  value.  With  many  there 
resulted  simply  the  popular  atheism  of  the  times;  with 
others,  an  attempt  at  constructive  ethical  and  religious 
thought.  In  this  respect,  Socrates  was  undoubtedly  guilty 
of  the  popular  charge  of  corrupting  the  youth.  The 
destructive  and  critical  tendency  was  popularly  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  Sophists.  In  another  respect  the  con¬ 
structive  effort  constituted  the  most  striking  characteristic 
of  the  times,  the  change  in  the  character  of  Grecian  phi¬ 
losophy.  Hitherto  the  interest  had  been  in  various  inter¬ 
pretations  of  the  material  universe.  The  earlier  systems 
of  Grecian  philosophy  were  attempts  at  such  interpreta¬ 
tions.  Now  the  interest  became  subjective;  attention  was 
turned  inward.  Such  questions  were  raised  as  the  nature 
of  knowledge,  of  opinion,  of  virtue,  of  justice.  The 
centre  of  interest  was  man,  not  nature.  This  move¬ 
ment  in  its  beginning  was,  in  other  words,  more  largely 
negative  than  positive ;  it  was  a  disbelief  in  the  previous 
course  of  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  the  universe,  even  in 
the  possibility  of  such  knowledge  at  all.  This  general 
skepticism,  which  extended  to  religious  as  well  as  to 
intellectual  affairs,  was  one  of  the  conditions  that  aroused 
against  the  Sophists  the  bitter  antagonism  of  the  more 
conservative.  One  further  characteristic  of  the  period  was 
the  change  in  literature.  The  sixth  and  the  first  half  of 
the  fifth  centuries  were  included  in  the  great  period  of  the 
tragic  drama,  which  dealt  with  mythical  and  heroic  charac¬ 
ters  and  with  ethical  themes.  These  dramas  were  religious 


54  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

ceremonies  in  themselves,  and  were  religious  and  ethical 
in  their  nature  and  influence.  In  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  the  comedy  was  introduced,  in  which  the  charac¬ 
ters  were  representations  of  real  personages  drawn  from 
contemporary  life  and  treated  with  the  greatest  license. 
The  comedy  was  essentially  a  comment  on  everyday  life 
in  Athens,  but  a  comment  made  with  the  greatest  freedom. 
In  it  were  permitted  the  most  scurrilous  attacks  on  the 
character  of  citizens,  on  religion,  on  civic  institutions. 
In  respect  to  individuals  greater  freedom  of  speech  was 
allowed  at  Athens  than  would  be  tolerated  in  any  modern 
time.  This  freedom  was  undoubtedly  abused,  and  hence 
arises  the  difficulty  in  using  such  sources.  The  last  half 
of  the  fifth  century  was  the  period  of.  the  old  comedy ; 
the  fourth  century  includes  the  period  of  the  middle 
comedy,  —  the  two  practically  constituting  the  period 
under  discussion. 

Such  profound  changes  as  those  indicated  could  not 
take  place  without  affecting  education  in  every  aspect. 
These  changes  constitute  the  transition  to  the  new  educa¬ 
tion. 

The  Sources.  —  The  classic  reference  to  this  change 
is  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes,  and  in  the  passage  which 
contains  the  contest  between  the  Just  and  the  Unjust 
Causes  there  is  the  best  presentation  of  this  conflict 
from  the  conservative  point  of  view  that  is  to  be  found. 
It  is,  however,  so  obviously  a  presentation  from  one  point 
of  view  that  its  interpretation  is  subject  to  many  difficul¬ 
ties.  The  general  view  presented  is  undoubtedly  that  of 
the  conservatives  who  held  to  the  old  practices.  In  some 
respects  it  expresses  also  the  views  held  by  the  masses  at 
that  time  (423  b.c.)  in  regard  to  the  new  teachers.  The 


The  New  Greek  Education 


55 


representation  of  Socrates  had  much  to  do  with  the  hostile 
attitude  of  the  populace  toward  him,  though  his  death  was 
not  decreed  until  twenty-four  years  later. 

Aristophanes  lived  from  444  to  381  b.c.,  practically  the 
period  of  this  transition.  He  is  considered  the  greatest 
writer  of  Greek  comedies.  The  Clouds  is  usually  consid¬ 
ered  to  be  his  greatest  work,  though  when  presented  in 
423  b.c.  it  received  only  third  prize.  Aristophanes  was 
considered  by  the  Greeks,  by  Plato  among  the  rest,  as  one 
of  their  greatest  men.  His  general  attitude  is  one  of  high¬ 
est  patriotism  and  of  regard  for  civic  uprightness  and 
decency.  While  a  comedian  in  the  form  of  his  art,  he  was 
a  moralist  in  purpose  and  influence.  The  great  number  of 
passages  in  his  writings  that  are  utterly  unworthy,  accord¬ 
ing  to  modern  criteria  of  taste,  are  to  be  explained,  not 
only  by  the  general  character  of  his  age,  which  in  matters 
of  morality  was  much  below  the  standard  of  modern  times, 
but  also  by  the  license  of  the  comedy  and  of  the  Dionysiac 
festivals.  Aristophanes’  intensity  of  purpose  and  conser¬ 
vatism  of  view,  together  with  the  license  of  the  occasions 
on  which  his  comedy  was  presented,  gives  rise  to  the  diffi¬ 
culties  of  interpretation.  It  is  readily  seen  that  his  view 
of  Socrates  is  but  partial,  though  in  selecting  him  as  a  type 
of  those  who  were  undermining  old  ideas  and  practices  his 
judgment  was  correct.  The  question  as  to  how  far  his  view 
of  the  new  educational  ideas  and  their  influences  is  in  a 
similar  way  partial,  is  much  more  difficult  to  answer.  The 
following  principles  of  interpretation  are  suggested :  His 
analysis  of  the  old  education,  narrow  and  intense,  but  pro¬ 
ductive  of  great  results,  may  be  accepted.  His  view  of  the 
new  education  may  be  taken  as  essentially  that  of  the  con¬ 
servative  element  in  society,  backed  by  the  prejudices  of 


56  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

the  thoughtless  multitude.  His  presentation  of  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  Sophists  and  of  Socrates  is  a  biased  one  — 
a  presentation  based  on  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  nega¬ 
tive  results  of  their  teachings,  but  at  the  same  time  showing 
no  comprehension  of  the  fact  that  positive  advance  could 
come  only  through  a  preceding  critical  movement.  His 
misrepresentations  of  the  Sophists  are  no  more  erroneous 
than  those  of  Plato  are  now  seen  to  be,  though  from  a  wholly 
different  point  of  view.  As  to  the  superficial  results  of  the 
new  education,  his  presentation  may  be  taken  as  indicative 
of  existing  conditions,  though  even  here  there  are  evidently 
exaggerations.  As  a  contrast  between  the  long-tried  re¬ 
sults  of  the  old  education  and  the  superficial  tendencies  of 
the  new,  his  views  may  be  accepted  as  essentially  correct. 
His  indictment  can  be  accepted  even  concerning  the  dis¬ 
integrating  political  effects  and  the  demoralizing  and  ir¬ 
religious  social  effects  of  the  new  education  on  the  large 
portion  of  the  populace  that  accepted  the  teachings.  But 
in  this  connection  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  no 
correct  presentation  of  the  essential  intellectual  character¬ 
istics  of  the  new  education,  or  of  the  permanent  ethical  and 
religious  advances  that  were  to  result  therefrom  ;  and  that, 
on  the  contrary,  Aristophanes  might  be  taken  simply  as  a 
representative  of  the  enemies  of  enlightenment  and  prog¬ 
ress,  though  he  was  correct  in  assuming  that  the  progress 
was  to  be  gained  only  by  the  destruction  of  the  old  religion 
and  of  national  existence. 

Two  other  selections  relating  to  this  educational  transi¬ 
tion  are  from  the  orations  of  Isocrates,  himself  a  type  of 
the  Sophists  of  the  second  generation  when  their  educa¬ 
tional  work  was  definitely  formulated  into  schools.  Isoc¬ 
rates  was  born  436  b.c.,  and  was  instructed  by  Prodicus, 


The  New  Greek  Education 


57 


Protagoras,  Gorgias,  and  the  other  Sophists.  In  392  b.c. 
he  established  a  school  in  Athens,  though  he  had 
taught  elsewhere  for  twelve  years.  This  school  was  largely 
attended  by  Athenians  and  other  Grecians,  and  brought 
him  wealth  and  great  reputation.  His  influence  was  ex¬ 
erted,  not  through  participation  in  actual  public  activities, 
but  by  means  of  orations  prepared  for  circulation  through¬ 
out  Greece  rather  than  for  delivery  on  special  occasions. 

The  first  of  the  selections  here  given  is  the  oration 
Against  the  Sophists ,  written  about  390  b.c.,  when  Isoc¬ 
rates  was  just  beginning  his  work  at  Athens.  In  this 
oration  he  declares  the  principles  underlying  his  work  by 
protesting  against  the  practices  adopted  by  other  members 
of  the  teaching  profession.  Isocrates  was  a  Sophist,  and 
so  calls  himself ;  but  from  his  point  of  view  there  were 
many  unworthy  members  of  the  craft.  The  first  class  of 
teachers  criticised  are  those  who  profess  to  impart  absolute 
knowledge  which  will  enable  others  to  direct  their  conduct 
under  all  circumstances.  These  teachers  are  criticised,  not 
only  for  accepting  fees,  but  for  their  fundamental  claim. 
In  this  latter  criticism  he  has  in  view  the  followers  of  Soc¬ 
rates  and  Plato,  if  not  the  great  masters  themselves.  The 
second  class  of  teachers  criticised  are  the  professors  of 
political  discourse,  and  that,  too,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
it  is  to  this  class  that  Isocrates  himself  belongs.  Here, 
however,  he  criticises  the  claim  commonly  put  forth  of 
power  to  make  any  one  a  good  forensic  speaker  irrespec¬ 
tive  of  his  natural  ability.  The  third  class  criticised  are 
those  who  profess  to  write  on  the  art  of  rhetoric,  yet  con¬ 
fine  the  whole  art  to  the  realm  of  forensic  or  political 
discourse. 

The  second  selection  was  written  354  b.c.,  at  the  close 


58  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

of  his  career.  Isocrates  was  then  eighty-two  years  old 
and  was  the  leading  representative  of  his  profession.  In 
this  oration,  On  the  Exchange  of  Estates ,  he  gives  not  only 
a  defence  of  himself  and  of  his  own  career,  but  of  his  pro¬ 
fession  in  general.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  selection  is 
stated  the  general  theory  of  the  Sophists,  or  of  rhetorical 
education. 

The  fourth  source  relating  to  this  period  is  the  selection 
from  the  Republic ,  wherein  Plato  points  out  the  evil  of  ill- 
directed  education,  and  shows  the  distinction  between  the 
true  philosopher  and  the  false.  This  discussion  gives 
Plato’s  conception  of  the  group  of  teachers  represented 
by  Isocrates,  just  as  the  paragraph  in  Against  the  Sophists 
gave  the  Sophists’  views  of  the  philosophic  or  dialectic 
teachers.  As  the  philosophers  were  visionaries  and  theo¬ 
rists  to  Isocrates,  so  the  Sophists  were  simply  corrupted, 
ignoble,  incompletely  formed  philosophers  to  Plato.  The 
value  of  the  Republic  as  a  source  is  discussed  later  (p.  130). 

The  Changes  in  the  Education  of  the  period  are  mani¬ 
fold  and  not  confined  to  any  one  aspect,  though  they  are 
more  pronounced  in  what  would  now  be  called  secondary 
and  higher  education.  Using  the  testimony  of  the  Clouds 
with  caution  and  supplementing  it  with  corroborative  evi¬ 
dence,  circumstantial  or  direct,  from  a  great  variety  of 
sources,  the  following  general  changes  can  be  indicated. 
The  very  source  of  education,  the  home  itself,  was  affected 
by  these  changes.  There  was  a  decline  in  the  rigid  disci¬ 
pline  of  the  boy  and  of  the  immediate  personal  supervision 
of  the  boy  by  his  father.  His  early  training  was  now  left 
more  largely  to  the  direction  of  nurses  and  pedagogues  in 
whose  selection  less  care  was  exercised.  There  was  no 
need  for  the  old-time  severity.  There  was  greater  ease 


The  New  Greek  Education 


59 


and  luxury  in  the  home  life.  Even  the  change  in  table 
manners  and  in  foods  is  marked  by  Aristophanes  as  being 
significant.  The  up-to-date  youth  recognized  no  rules  in 
the  choice  of  foods  but  his  own  tastes,  and  if  what  he  de¬ 
sired  was  not  given  him  willingly,  he  procured  it  himself. 
He  was  rude  in  his  behaviour,  he  giggled,  he  crossed  his 
legs,  he  interrupted  the  conversation ;  and  was  indulged 
by  his  father  with  weak  good  humor. 

The  changes  in  the  school  were  more  significant.  A 
similar  freedom  or  license  prevailed  there.  In  the  music 
schools  the  simple  music  of  old  did  not  suffice  :  quavers  and 
trills  of  the  voice  were  indulged  in ;  the  old  melodies  were 
replaced  by  those  more  complex  and  more  sentimental,  for 
the  dominant  moral  purpose  now  became  largely  intellec¬ 
tual  and  aesthetic.  The  cithera  as  a  simple  accompaniment 
for  the  voice  no  longer  sufficed,  and  the  flute  and  other 
wind  instruments  were  now  also  used,  though  hitherto 
their  use  had  been  considered  positively  immoral.  In  the 
literary  work  of  the  music  schools  a  similar  change 
occurred.  The  old  national  songs  and  the  Homeric 
poems  were  partially  replaced  by  the  newer  literature  of  a 
reflective  and  didactic  character,  that  stimulated  discussion 
and  introspective  analysis,  but  furnished  little  incentive  to 
the  active  life  in  public  service  that  had  hitherto  been  the 
purpose.  A  yet  greater  change  occurred  in  the  palaestra 
in  that  the  severity  of  the  physical  training  was  much  re¬ 
laxed.  The  motive  of  the  gymnastic  period  was  no  longer 
simply  the  production  of  strong,  manly,  healthy  bodies,  as 
an  equipment  for  the  enjoyment  of  life  and  the  perform¬ 
ance  of  civic  and  military  duties,  but  rather  the  acquirement 
of  physical  beauty  and  sensuous  enjoyment.  We  cannot 
believe  that  this  criticism  indicates  a  condition  universally 


60  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

true,  but  it  does  indicate  a  tendency.  Under  these  condi¬ 
tions  the  moral  results  of  the  old  palaestra  training  could 
no  longer  be  expected. 

But  the  greatest  change  occurred  in  the  character  of  the 
education  from  fifteen  to  twenty.  Hitherto  boys  had 
spent  the  first  three  years  of  this  period  in  the  gymnasium, 
and  in  the  political  training  in  the  agora,  and  the  courts, 
and  the  last  two  years  in  the  ephebic  military  service. 
During  the  time  of  conflict  between  the  old  ideas  and  the 
new,  the  education  of  the  gymnastic  period  became 
predominantly  intellectual.  The  substitution  of  discussion 
and  rhetorical  education  for  the  old  physical  and  civic 
training  is  quite  clearly  pictured  in  some  of  the  dialogues 
of  Plato  in  which  youths  participate.  Whatever  else  may 
be  said  for  the  Platonic  discussions,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  they  could  never  be  brought  to  a  close,  and  that  they 
were  without  any  immediate  practical  result.  It  can, 
therefore,  be  readily  understood  how  these  educational 
innovations  appeared  to  the  conservatives  but  a  training  in 
idleness.  The  new  movement  was  at  first  but  a  vague 
general  tendency,  but  by  the  opening  of  the  fourth  cen¬ 
tury  it  came  to  have  a  definite  organization  in  the  philo¬ 
sophical  and  rhetorical  schools,  while  in  its  earlier  stage  it 
found  its  best  representation  in  the  Sophists. 

The  Sophists  have  been  judged  largely  by  what  their 
opponents  have  said  of  them.  The  typical  Sophists  of  the 
earlier  period  have  left  no  writings ;  at  least  none  are 
extant.  It  has  been  popular  to  consider  them  not  only  as 
the  typical  representatives  of  these  innovations  in  Greek 
society  during  this  period,  but  as  being  responsible  for  the 
growth  in  immorality  and  civic  indifference.  The  more 
just  view  now  accepted  is  that  the  Sophists  were  neither 


The  New  Greek  Education  61 

better  nor  worse  than  their  times,  but  that  they  were  the 
teachers  who  were  able  to  give  what  the  new  Greece  of 
that  time  demanded.  In  supplying  these  new  demands, 
they  became  an  influential  factor  in  the  civic  and  moral 
disintegration  and  in  the  intellectual  advance  that  form 
the  great  characteristics  of  the  times. 

The  first  of  the  Sophists  was  Protagoras,  who  began  to 
teach  in  Athens  about  445  b.c.  The  term  “  Sophist,”  how¬ 
ever,  had  been  used  earlier  than  this  to  indicate  any  one 
who  professed  wisdom,  such  as  the  Seven  Sages  of  the 
earlier  times.  After  Protagoras  came  a  number  of  other 
noted  teachers,  including  Gorgias,  Prodicus,  and  Hippias. 
These  men  were  received  at  Athens  with  great  enthusiasm, 
and  had  much  influence  on  such  men  as  Pericles,  Eurip¬ 
ides,  Socrates,  Thucydides,  and  Isocrates.  This  group 
of  Sophists  soon  raised  up  a  multitude  of  lesser  ones, 
pupils  or  imitators  of  less  ability,  putting  forth  more 
extravagant  claims,  and  exerting  a  more  detrimental  influ¬ 
ence.  The  influence  of  these  men  brought  the  entire 
class  and  the  general  tendency  of  their  teachings  into 
disrepute  with  the  more  conservative  element  in  Athenian 
society,  and  aroused  the  opposition  of  such  teachers  as 
Socrates  and  Plato,  just  as  the  minor  teachers  of  the 
Socratic  type  called  forth  the  denunciation  of  Isocrates. 
The  masses  did  not  discriminate  between  the  teachings 
of  Socrates  and  that  of  the  others,  for  in  essentials  Socra¬ 
tes  was  a  Sophist,  and  so  considered  himself.  Many  of 
his  pupils  were  no  more  of  a  credit  to  him  than  were  those 
of  the  Sophists.  In  fact,  the  Phidippides  of  the  Clouds 
is  generally  supposed  to  be  a  more  or  less  faithful  picture 
of  young  Alcibiades,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates. 

The  essential  characteristics  of  the  Sophists  were  these : 


62  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

they  professed  to  have  the  knowledge  that  was  necessary 
for  a  successful  career  in  the  public  life  of  the  times,  and 
to  be  able  to  impart  this  by  instruction ;  they  devoted 
themselves  largely  to  the  instruction  of  boys  between  the 
age  of  fifteen  and  the  time  of  their  admission  into  full  citi¬ 
zenship.  This  period,  formerly  devoted  to  gymnastic 
exercise,  routine  military  service,  and  training  in  political 
duties  through  association  with  elders  in  the  agora  and 
the  courts,  was  now  largely  given  over  to  discussion  and 
theoretical  instruction.  To  the  old  Greek  this  would  only 
appear  as  a  training  in  idleness.  The  common  method 
of  instruction  was  to  teach  by  continuous  discourse,  but 
in  this  respect  Socrates  was  a  marked  exception,  for  he 
taught  through  conversation.  This  use  of  the  dialogue 
developed  into  the  specific  dialectic  method,  and  even 
more  than  the  Sophists’  method  was  responsible  for 
making  the  Greeks  “  a  nation  of  talkers  instead  of  a 
nation  of  doers.”  A  further  distinction,  not  noted  in  the 
Clouds ,  between  Socrates  and  the  other  Sophists  was  that 
while  the  latter  taught  for  fees,  the  former  did  not.  Even 
this  distinction  was  not  observed  by  the  successors  of 
Socrates,  unless  it  was  Plato.  In  their  fundamental  belief, 
that  virtue,  or  wisdom,  or  practical  guidance  in  life,  could 
be  gained  by  instruction  instead  of  by  the  previous 
methods  of  a  long  training  in  the  formation  of  social 
habits,  Socrates  and  the  Sophists  were  essentially  at  one. 
As  an  aid  to  popularizing  their  ideas  and  perhaps  as  a 
means  to  success,  the  Sophists  travelled  from  city  to  city, 
though  Athens  naturally  became  the  centre  on  account 
of  the  great  freedom  of  thought  allowed  there,  and  on 
account  of  the  intellectual  superiority  of  its  citizens. 
These  Sophists  were  received  everywhere  with  great 


The  New  Greek  Education 


63 


enthusiasm  by  the  younger  generation.  On  account  of 
this  popularity  and  the  rather  spectacular  character  of 
their  work,  they  were  held  responsible  for  the  changes 
that  Grecian  society  was  undergoing  at  that  time.  They 
held  no  common  doctrines  and  had  no  common  organiza¬ 
tion  as  a  school.  They  agreed,  however,  in  their  negative 
attitude  toward  old  Greek  speculation  in  its  search  for 
an  explanation  of  the  physical  universe,  and  toward  the 
old  religion  as  a  basis  for  moral  action  and  social  conduct. 
It  is  because  of  this  critical  attitude  that  they  are  con¬ 
demned  by  Aristophanes.  But  the  criticism  of  Plato  is 
of  a  diametrically  opposite  sort.  It  is  because  they  do 
not  go  far  enough  in  rejecting  the  old  and  do  not  attempt 
to  set  up  a  radically  new  society  instead  of  preparing  for 
a  successful  career  in  the  present,  that  he  condemns  them 
as  corrupt  or  incompletely  formed  philosophers. 

Not  only  was  there  no  common  ground  in  their  beliefs, 
but  in  their  purposes  also  they  were  wholly  individualistic. 
The  success  which  they  professed  to  prepare  for  was  success 
as  an  individual.  It  had  little  or  no  reference  to  the  needs 
of  the  state,  and  was  attained  at  the  expense  of  the  necessary 
military  preparation  demanded  and  most  needed  by  the 
state  at  that  time.  Success  in  defending  one’s  own  inter¬ 
est,  in  rising  to  political  and  legal  distinction,  in  acquiring 
wealth,  in  achieving  renown  through  oratory  or  debate,  was 
their  aim.  Virtue  or  wisdom  becomes  success  or  happi¬ 
ness,  a  wholly  individualistic  conception.  In  their  ideas 
and  in  their  influence  they  were  wholly  in  accord  with  the 
individualistic  tendencies  of  the  time,  and  were  responsible 
for  accelerating  this  development.  Their  nearest  ap¬ 
proach  to  a  common  doctrine  was  this  expression  of 
individualism,  “  Man  is  the  measure  of  all  things.” 


64  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

The  means  to  success  emphasized  by  the  Sophists  con 
stituted  a  training  in  formal  oratory  and  in  popular  discus¬ 
sion.  These  were  the  most  assured  means  to  success  in 
that  period.  This  training  led  to  a  much  greater  attention 
than  had  ever  been  paid  before  to  the  form  and  structure 
of  language,  both  in  its  oral  and  written  forms,  and,  in  con¬ 
sequence,  higher  education  became  almost  exclusively 
literary. 

Literary  Education.  —  Ability  to  speak  in  public,  in  de¬ 
fence  of  one’s  own  rights  and  in  advocacy  of  personal 
views  on  public  questions,  was  expected  of  all  Athenian 
citizens.  The  Sophists  deliberately  proposed  to  create 
this  ability  through  instruction.  While  they  devoted  most 
of  their  time  to  personal  instruction,  many  of  them  wrote 
grammatical  and  rhetorical  treatises,  and  from  them  date 
both  these  sciences.  The  efforts  of  the  minor  Sophists 
were  largely  directed  toward  clarifying  the  meaning  of 
words  and  making  more  definite  the  structure  of  the  lan¬ 
guage.  In  general  their  work  had  the  same  purpose  as 
the  teaching  of  rhetoric  and  composition  at  the  present 
time.  For  this  they  were  criticised,  as  were  Socrates, 
Isocrates,  Aristotle,  Quintilian,  and  others  whose  reputa¬ 
tions  have  survived  the  criticism.  Sophistic  instruction 
meant,  however,  an  emphasis  on  the  form  of  expression 
rather  than  on  the  thought.  This  distinction  coincided 
with  a  further  general  one  that  arose  under  the  influence 
of  Socrates.  The  rhetorical  education  was  largely  a  prepa¬ 
ration  for  practical  life,  and  was  dominated  chiefly  by  the 
hope  of  success  or  gain  on  the  part  of  the  individual.  As 
opposed  to  this  there  was  the  tendency  to  investigate  for 
the  sake  of  truth  itself,  and  in  so  doing  to  pursue  a  life 
that  had  little  direct  connection  with  the  activities  of  the 


The  New  Greek  Education 


65 

public,  and  that  offered  little  opportunity  for  achieving 
success  with,  or  reward  from,  the  public.  The  method 
best  adapted  to  such  pursuits  was  the  dialectic  or  conver¬ 
sational  method  of  Socrates.  Hence  the  general  tendency 
popularly  represented  by  the  Sophists,  divided  by  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  fourth  century  into  two  distinct  branches.  One 
was  the  rhetorical  education,  that  aimed  to  prepare  for 
practical  life,  that  was  chiefly  grammatical  and  rhetorical  in 
its  subject-matter,  and  that  depended  upon  formal  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the  lecture  type  for  its  method  ;  the  other  was  the 
philosophical,  that  had  little  or  no  connection  with  prac¬ 
tical  life,  that  devoted  itself  to  speculation,  to  a  search  for 
truth  in  the  subjective  or  thought  world,  and  that  was 
dialectic  in  its  method.  Therein  lay  the  first  broad  dis¬ 
tinction  between  the  practical  and  the  liberal  education. 
Both  dialectician  and  rhetorician  had  been  included  at 
first  under  the  term  “  Sophist.”  But  through  the  influence 
of  such  criticisms  as  those  of  Plato,  the  term  “  Sophists  ” 
was  limited  for  the  most  part  to  the  rhetoricians,  while 
the  other  group  assumed  the  term  “philosophers.”  To 
the  former  group  the  philosophers  were  visionaries,  lacking 
in  public  spirit,  patriotism,  and  wisdom  in  the  practical 
affairs  of  life.  To  the  latter  the  rhetoricians,  or  the 
Sophists  as  they  prefer  to  call  them,  were  selfish,  incapable 
of  seeing  or  appreciating  the  truth,  and  concerned  in  seek¬ 
ing  their  own  advancement  at  the  expense  of  the  public 
welfare.  Each  appeared  to  the  other  as  the  corrupters  of 
youth;  to  the  conservative  public  both  appeared  in  this 
light.  The  work  of  the  two  groups  was  largely  responsi¬ 
ble  for  that  versatility  of  mind  that  gave  to  the  Greek  the 
intellectual  and  literary  leadership  of  all  times.  To  the 
influence  of  both  was  due  as  well  the  culmination  of  the 


66  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

political  decline  and  the  rejection  of  the  old  religious  and 
social  ideals.  On  the  other  hand,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  germs  of  moral  decay  were  inherent  in  classical 
society,  and  that  they  are  discoverable  long  before  the 
time  of  the  Sophists.  Education  in  Greece  now  became 
almost  wholly  literary  and  soon  took  the  form  it  retained 
through  the  Graeco-Roman  period. 


Selections  from  The  Clouds  of  Aristophanes 


The  occa¬ 
sion  for 
resort  to 
Sophists’ 
teachings. 


(Scene  —  the  interior  of  a  sleeping  apartment ;  Strepsiades,  Phidip- 

pides,  and  two  servants  are  seen  in  their  beds ;  a  small  house  is  seen 

at  a  distance.  Time  —  midnight.) 

Strepsiades,  formerly  a  wealthy  country  gentleman,  without  culture, 
has  married  out  of  his  station  to  a  luxury-loving  Athenian  woman. 
Their  son,  Phidippides,  has  squandered  much  of  his  father’s  fortune  in 
horse  racing  and  other  extravagances.  Anxiety  concerning  some  of 
these  debts,  now  due,  causes  the  father  a  sleepless  night.  The  son 
dreams  of  his  racing  and  in  his  sleep  talks  of  his  sporting  friends.  The 
comedy  opens  with  the  lamentations  of  the  father  and  the  broken 
mutterings  of  the  son. 

******* 

(75-152.) 

Strep.  I  have  discovered  one  path  for  my  course  ex¬ 
traordinarily  excellent ;  to  which  if  I  persuade  this  youth, 
I  shall  be  saved.  But  first  I  wish  to  awake  him.  How 
then  can  I  awake  him  in  the  most  agreeable  manner  ?  — 
How  ?  Phidippides,  my  little  Phidippides  ? 

Phid.  What,  father  ? 

Strep.  Kiss  me,  and  give  me  your  right  hand ! 

Phid.  There.  What’s  the  matter  ? 

Strep.  Tell  me,  do  you  love  me  ? 

Phid.  Yes,  by  this  Equestrian  Neptune.1 

Strep.  Nay,  do  not  by  any  means  mention  this  Eques¬ 
trian  to  me,  for  this  god  is  the  author  of  my  misfortunes. 
But,  if  you  really  love  me  from  your  heart,  my  son,  obey  me. 

1  Patron  god  of  his  favorite  sport.  Probably  represented  in  the  bedchamber 
by  a  statue. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


67 


Phid.  In  what,  then,  pray,  shall  I  obey  you  ? 

Strep.  Reform  your  habits  as  quickly  as  possible ;  and 
go  and  learn  what  I  advise. 

Phid.  Tell  me  now,  what  do  you  prescribe  ? 

Strep.  And  will  you  obey  me  at  all  ? 

Phid.  By  Bacchus,  I  will  obey  you. 

Strep.  Look  this  way,  then  !  Do  you  see  this  little  door 
and  little  house  ? 

Phid.  I  see  it.  What  then,  pray,  is  this,  father  ? 

Strep.  This  is  a  thinking-shop  1  of  wise  spirits.  There 
dwell  men  who  in  speaking  of  the  heavens  persuade  peo¬ 
ple  that  it  is  an  oven,  and  that  it  encompasses  us,  and  that 
we  are  the  embers.  These  men  teach,  if  one  give  them 
money,  to  conquer  in  speaking,  right  or  wrong. 

Phid.  Who  are  they  ? 

Strep.  I  do  not  know  the  name  accurately.  They  are 
minute-philosophers,  noble  and  excellent. 

Phid.  Bah!  they  are  rogues  ;  I  know  them.  You  mean 
the  quacks,  the  pale-faced  wretches,  the  bare-footed  fellows,  of 
whose  number  are  the  miserable  Socrates  and  Chaerephon.2 

Strep.  Hold !  hold  !  be  silent  !  Do  not  say  anything 
foolish.  But,  if  you  have  any  concern  for  your  father’s 
patrimony,  become  one  of  them,  having  given  up  your 
horsemanship. 

Phid.  I  would  not,  by  Bacchus,  if  even  you  were  to  give 
me  the  pheasants  3  which  Leogoras  rears  ! 

Strep.  Go,  I  entreat  you,  dearest  of  men,  go  and  be 
taught. 

Phid.  Why,  what  shall  I  learn  ? 

Strep.  They  say,  that  among  them  are  both  the  two 
causes, — the  better  cause,  whichever  that  is,  and  the  worse  : 
they  say,  that  the  one  of  these  two  causes,  the  worse,  pre¬ 
vails,  though  it  speaks  on  the  unjust  side.  If  therefore 
you  learn  for  me  this  unjust  cause,  I  would  not  pay  to  any 

1  Or  subtlety-shop. 

2  “  A  hanger-on  of  the  philosopher,  and  appears  to  have  been  laughed  at 
even  by  his  fellow-scholars  for  the  mad  extremes  to  which  he  carried  his  rever¬ 
ential  attachment.”  —  Walsh. 

3  Reference  to  another  extravagant  taste  of  wealthy  Athenians.  Leogoras 
was  noted  for  the  luxury  and  dissipation  in  which  he  wasted  his  property. 


68  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Educatio7i 


The 

Sophists’ 

school 

caricatured. 


one,  not  even  an  obolous  of  these  debts,  which  I  owe  at  pres¬ 
ent  on  your  account. 

Phid.  I  cannot  comply  ;  for  I  should  not  dare  to  look 
upon  the  Knights,  having  lost  all  my  colour. 

Strep.  Then,  by  Ceres,  you  shall  not  eat  any  of  my  goods ! 
neither  you,  nor  your  draught-horse,  nor  your  blood-horse  ; 
but  I  will  drive  you  out  of  my  house  to  the  crows. 

Phid.  My  uncle  Megacles  will  not  permit  me  to  be  with¬ 
out  a  horse.  But  IT1  go  in,  and  pay  no  heed  to  you. 

\Exit  Phidippides. 

Strep.  Though  fallen,  still  I  will  not  lie  prostrate :  but 
having  prayed  to  the  gods,  I  will  go  myself  to  the  thinking- 
shop  and  get  taught.  How  then,  being  an  old  man,  and 
having  a  bad  memory,  and  dull  of  comprehension,  shall  I 
learn  the  subtleties  of  refined  disquisitions  ?  —  I  must  go. 
Why  thus  do  I  loiter  and  not  knock  at  the  door  ?  [ Knocks 

at  the  door.']  Boy  !  little  boy  ! 

Dis.  from  within ].  Go  to  the  devil!  Who  is  it  that 
knocked  at  the  door  ? 

Strep.  Strepsiades,  the  son  of  Phidon,  of  Cicynna.1 

Dis.  You  are  a  stupid  fellow,  by  Jove  !  who  have  kicked 
against  the  door  so  very  carelessly,  and  have  caused  the 
mis-carriage  2  of  an  idea  which  I  had  conceived. 

Strep.  Pardon  me ;  for  I  dwell  afar  in  the  country. 
But  tell  me  the  thing  which  has  been  made  to  miscarry. 

Dis.  It  is  not  lawful  to  mention  it,  except  to  disciples. 

Strep.  Tell  it,  then,  to  me  without  fear;  for  I  here  am 
come  as  a  disciple  to  the  thinking-shop. 

Dis.  I  will  tell  you  ;  but  you  must  regard  these  as  mys¬ 
teries.  Socrates  lately  asked  Chaerephon  about  a  flea, 
how  many  of  its  own  feet  it  jumped;  for  after  having  bit 
the  eyebrow  of  Chaerephon,  it  leapt  away  on  to  the  head 
of  Socrates. 

Strep.  How,  then,  did  he  measure  this  ? 

Dis.  Most  cleverly.  He  melted  some  wax,  and  then 
took  the  flea  and  dipped  its  feet  in  the  wax ;  and  then  a 

1  Strepsiades  gives  name,  paternity,  and  deme  (native  place),  as  was  re¬ 
quired  in  judicial  proceedings,  thus  adding  to  the  serio-comic  aspect. 

2  Referring  to  Socrates’  characterization  of  himself  as  an  intellectual  mid¬ 
wife. 


The  New  Greek  Education  69 

pair  of  Persian  slippers  1  stuck  to  it  when  cooled.  Having 
gently  loosened  these,  he  measured  back  the  distance. 

Strep.  O  king  Jupiter!  what  subtlety  of  thought!  2  .  .  . 

(180-269.) 

Open,  open  quickly  the  thinking-shop,  and  show  to  me 
Socrates  as  quickly  as  possible.  For  I  desire  to  be  a  dis¬ 
ciple.  Come,  open  the  door.  —  [  The  door  of  the  Thinking- 
shop  opens ,  and  the  pupils  of  Socrates  are  seen ,  all  with  their 
heads  fixed  on  the  ground ,  while  Socrates  himself  is  seen 
suspended  in  the  air  in  a  basket .]  O  Hercules,  from  what 
country  are  these  wild  beasts  ? 

Dis.  What  do  you  wonder  at  ?  To  what  do  they  seem 
to  you  to  be  like  ? 

Strep.  To  the  Spartans,  who  were  taken  at  Pylos.3  But 
why  in  the  world  do  these  look  upon  the  ground  ? 

Dis.  They  are  in  search  of  the  things  below  the  earth. 

Strep.  Then  they  are  searching  for  roots.  Do  not, 
then,  trouble  yourselves  about  this ;  for  I  know  where 
there  are  large  and  fine  ones.  Why,  what  are  these  doing, 
who  are  bent  down  so  much  ? 

Dis.  These  are  groping  about  in  darkness  under  Tar¬ 
tarus.4  .  .  .  ^Turning  to  the  pupils.  ~\  But  go  in,  lest  he 
meet  with  us. 

Strep.  Not  yet,  not  yet:  but  let  them  remain,  that  I 
may  communicate  to  them  a  little  matter  of  my  own. 

Dis.  It  is  not  permitted  to  them  to  remain  without  in 
the  open  air  for  a  very  long  time.5  \_The pupils  retire .] 

Strep.  [ discovering  a  variety  of  7nathematical  instru¬ 
ments ].  Why,  what  is  this,  in  the  name  of  heaven  ?  Tell 
me. 

Dis.  This  is  Astronomy. 

Strep.  But  what  is  this  ? 

Dis.  Geometry. 

1  Close-fitting  shoes. 

2  Here  follow  a  number  of  such  incidents,  designed  to  ridicule  the  practice 
of  the  Sophists  and  the  “  new  ”  educators. 

8  Refers  to  their  lean  and  haggard  appearance  after  their  long  imprison¬ 
ment. 

4  Beneath  Tartarus  there  was  nothing. 

6  They  would  lose  their  scholarly  pallor. 


Subjects 
investigated 
by  the 
Sophists 
ridiculed. 


Socrates 
represented 
as  the  chief 
of  the 
Sophists. 


70  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Strep.  What  then  is  the  use  of  this  ? 

Dis.  To  measure  out  the  land. 

Strep.  What  belongs  to  an  allotment  ? 

Dis.  No,  but  the  whole  earth. 

Strep.  You  tell  me  a  clever  notion  ;  for  the  contrivance 
is  democratic  and  useful. 

Dis.  ^pointing  to  a  map'].  See,  here’s  a  map  of  the  whole 
earth.  Do  you  see  ?  this  is  Athens. 

Strep.  What  say  you  ?  I  don’t  believe  you ;  for  I  do 
not  see  the  Dicasts  1  sitting. 

Dis.  Be  assured  that  this  is  truly  the  Attic  territory. 

Strep.  Why,  where  are  my  fellow-tribesmen  of  Cicynna  ? 

Dis.  Here  they  are.  And  Euboea  here,  as  you  see,  is 
stretched  out  a  long  way  by  the  side  of  it  to  a  great 
distance. 

Strep.  I  know  that ;  for  it  was  stretched  by  us  and 
Pericles.2  But  where  is  Lacedaemon  ? 

Dis.  Where  is  it  ?  Here  it  is. 

Strep.  How  near  it  is  to  us !  Pay  great  attention  to 
this,  to  remove  it  very  far  from  us. 

Dis.  By  Jupiter,  it  is  not  possible. 

Strep.  Then  you  will  weep  for  it.  \_L00king  up  and 
discovering  Socrates.]  Come,  who  is  this  man  who  is  in 
the  basket  ? 

Dis.  Himself.3 

Strep.  Who’s  “  Himself  ”  ? 

Dis.  Socrates. 

Strep.  O  Socrates  !  Come,  you  sir,  call  upon  him 
loudly  for  me. 

Dis.  Nay,  rather,  call  him  yourself ;  for  I  have  no 
leisure.  \_Exit  Disciple. 

Strep.  Socrates  !  my  little  Socrates  ! 

Soc.  Why  callest  thou  me,  thou  creature  of  a  day  ? 

Strep.  First  tell  me,  I  beseech  you,  what  you  are  doing. 

Soc.  I  am  walking  in  the  air,  and  speculating  about 
the  sun. 

1  Popular  quiries  or  courts.  Every  year  six  thousand  citizens  were  jurymen. 

2  Subdued  by  the  Athenians  under  Pericles,  twenty  years  previous  to  the 
presentation  of  the  play. 

3  The  usual  designation  of  a  teacher  by  a  pupil  or  of  a  master  by  a  slave. 


The  New  Greek  Education  71 

Strep.  And  so  you  look  down  upon  the  gods  1  from  your 
basket,  and  not  from  the  earth  ?  if,  indeed,  it  is  so. 

Soc.  For  I  should  never  have  rightly  discovered  things 
celestial,  if  I  had  not  suspended  the  intellect,  and  mixed 
the  thought  in  a  subtle  form  with  its  kindred  air.  But 
if,  being  on  the  ground,  I  speculated  from  below  on  things 
above,  I  should  never  have  discovered  them.  For  the  earth 
forcibly  attracts  to  itself  the  meditative  moisture.  Water- 
cresses  also  suffer  the  very  same  thing.2 

Strep.  What  do  you  say  ?  Does  meditation  attract  the 
moisture  to  the  water-cresses  ?  Come  then,  my  little  Soc¬ 
rates,  descend  to  me,  that  you  may  teach  me  those  things, 
for  the  sake  of  which  I  have  come. 

[Socrates  lowers  himself  and  gets  out  of  the  basket .] 

Soc.  And  for  what  did  you  come  ? 

Strep.  Wishing  to  learn  to  speak  ;  for,  by  reason  of 
usury,  and  most  ill-natured  creditors,  I  am  pillaged  and 
plundered,  and  have  my  goods  seized  for  debt. 

Soc.  How  did  you  get  in  debt  without  observing  it  ? 

Strep.  A  horse-disease  3  consumed  me,  —  terrible  at  eat¬ 
ing.  But  teach  me  the  other  one  of  your  two  causes,  that 
which  pays  nothing ;  and  I  will  swear  by  the  gods,  I  will 
pay  down  to  you  whatever  reward  you  exact  of  me. 

Soc.  By  what  gods  will  you  swear  ?  for,  in  the  first 
place,  gods  are  not  a  current  coin  with  us. 

Strep.  By  what  do  you  swear  ?  By  iron  money,  as  in 
Byzantium  ? 4 

Soc.  Do  you  wish  to  know  clearly  celestial  matters,  what 
they  rightly  are  ? 

Strep.  Yes,  by  Jupiter,  if  it  be  possible  ! 

Soc.  And  to  hold  converse  with  the  Clouds,  our 
divinities  ? 

Strep.  By  all  means. 

Soc.  {with  great  solemnity ].  Seat  yourself,  then,  upon 
the  sacred  couch. 

Strep.  Well,  I  am  seated! 


1  Strepsiades  understands  Socrates  to  mean  the  sun-god. 

2  In  ridicule  of  Socrates’  habit  of  drawing  his  illustrations  from  the  affairs 
of  common  life. 

3  A  cancerous  ulcer. 


Aristopha¬ 
nes  presents 
the  old 
Greek 
attitude 
toward  the 
Sophists. 


4  A  Dorian  colony  at  that  time. 


Moral  and 
religious  ef¬ 
fects  of  the 
new  teach¬ 
ings  repre¬ 
sented  as 
subversive. 


72  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Soc.  Take,  then,  this  chaplet. 

Strep.  For  what  purpose  a  chaplet?1  —  Ah  me!  Soc¬ 
rates,  see  that  you  do  not  sacrifice  me  like  Athamas  ! 2 

Soc.  No  ;  we  do  all  these  to  those  who  get  initiated. 

Strep.  Then,  what  shall  I  gain,  pray  ? 

Soc.  You  shall  become  in  oratory  a  tricky  knave,  a 
thorough  rattle,  a  subtle  speaker.  —  But  keep  quiet. 

Strep.  By  Jupiter,  you  will  not  deceive  me ;  for  if  I  am 
besprinkled,3  I  shall  become  fine  flour. 

Soc.  It  becomes  the  old  man  to  speak  words  of  good 
omen,  and  to  hearken  to  my  prayer.  —  O  sovereign  King, 
immeasurable  Air,  who  keepest  the  earth  suspended,  and 
thou  bright  ALther,  and  ye  august  goddesses,  the  Clouds4 
sending  thunder  and  lightning,  arise,  appear  in  the  air,  O 
mistresses,  to  your  deep  thinker. 

Strep.  Not  yet,  not  yet,  till  I  wrap  this  around  me,  lest 
I  be  wet  through.  To  think  of  my  having  come  from 
home  without  even  a  cap,  unlucky  man !  .  .  . 

[  The  Chorus  representing  the  clouds  appears.  ] 
(320-416.) 

Strep.  Tell  me,  O  Socrates,  I  beseech  you  by  Jupiter, 
who  are  these  that  have  uttered  this  grand  song  ?  Are 
they  some  heroines  ? 

Soc.  By  no  means ;  but  heavenly  Clouds,  great  divini¬ 
ties  to  idle  men ; 5 6  who  supply  us  with  thought  and  argu¬ 
ment,  and  intelligence,  and  humbug  and  circumlocution, 
and  ability  to  hoax,  and  comprehension. 

Strep.  On  this  account  therefore  my  soul,  having  heard 
their  voice,  flutters,  and  already  seeks  to  discourse  sub- 
tilely,  and  to  quibble  about  smoke,  and  having  pricked  a 
maxim  with  a  little  notion,  to  refute  the  opposite  argu- 

1  It  was  the  custom  to  crown  with  a  chaplet  the  head  of  the  victim  for 
sacrifice. 

2  Recently  reproduced  on  the  stage.  Athamas  had  been  crowned  by  sacri¬ 
fice  to  Zeus,  but  was  saved  by  Heracles. 

3  The  head  of  the  sacrificial  victim  was  sprinkled  with  meal. 

4  The  transition  to  monotheism,  with  the  early  Greek  philosophers,  was 

usually  by  a  combination  of  the  three  related  deities,  Air,  .Ether,  Clouds. 

6  Referring  to  the  Sophists,  who  took  no  part  in  public  affairs. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


73 

ment.  .So  that  now  I  eagerly  desire,  if  by  any  means  it 
be  possible,  to  see  them  palpably. 

Soc.  Look,  then,  hither,  towards  Mount  Parnes ; 1  for 
now  I  behold  them  descending  gently. 

Strep.  Pray,  where  ?  Show  me. 

Soc.  See !  there  they  come  in  very  great  numbers  through 
the  hollows  and  thickets ;  there,  obliquely.2 

Strep.  What’s  the  matter  ?  for  I  can’t  see  them. 

Soc.  By  the  entrance. 

[. Enter  Chorus.] 

Strep.  Now  at  length  with  difficulty  I  just  see  them. 

Soc.  Now  at  length  you  assuredly  see  them,  unless  you 
have  your  eyes  running  pumpkins. 

Strep.  Yes,  by  Jupiter  !  O  highly  honoured  Clouds,  for 
now  they  cover  all  things. 

Soc.  Did  you  not,  however,  know,  nor  yet  consider, 
these  to  be  goddesses  ? 

Strep.  No,  by  Jupiter!  but  I  thought  them  to  be  mist, 
and  dew,  and  smoke. 

Soc.  For  you  do  not  know,  by  Jupiter,  that  these  feed 
very  many  sophists,  Thurian 3  soothsayers,  practisers  of 
medicine,  lazy-longhaired-onyx-ring-wearers,4  and  song- 
twisters  for  the  cyclic  dances,  and  meteorological  quacks. 
They  feed  idle  people  who  do  nothing,  because  such  men 
celebrate  them  in  verse. 

A  conversation  follows  in  which  Socrates  demonstrates  to  Strep- 
siades  that  clouds  can  take  any  form,  and  that  these  forms  of  the  Chorus 
which  resemble  women  in  reality  are  clouds. 

Strep.  O  earth,  what  a  voice  !  how  holy,  and  dignified, 
and  wondrous ! 

1  In  the  south  of  Attica :  frequently  crowned  with  clouds,  especially  in  the 
morning,  though  it  was  not  visible  from  the  stage  where  the  comedy  was  pre¬ 
sented. 

2  The  entrance  of  the  orchestra  is  here  indicated. 

3  Thurii  was  founded  444  B.C.,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  the  sooth¬ 
sayer  Lampon.  A  number  of  Sophists  and  orators  also  took  part  in  the 
movement. 

4  Dilettante  philosophers  of  Athens,  who  paid  great  attention  to  their  dress 
and  toilet. 


New  gods 
substituted 
for  old. 


Ancient 
moral  ideas 
replaced  by 
selfish  utili¬ 
tarian  ones. 


74  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Soc.  For,  in  fact,  these  alone  are  goddesses;  and  all 
the  rest  is  nonsense. 

Strep.  But  come,  by  the  Earth,  is  not  Jupiter,  the 
Olympian,  a  god  ? 

Soc.  What  Jupiter  ?  Do  not  trifle.  There  is  no  Jupiter. 

Strep.  What  do  you  say  ?  Who  rains,  then  ?  For  first 
of  all  explain  this  to  me. 

Soc.  These,  to  be  sure.  I  will  teach  you  it  by  powerful 
evidence.1  Come,  where  have  you  seen  him  raining  at  any¬ 
time  without  Clouds  ?  And  yet  he  ought  to  rain  in  fine 
weather,  and  these  to  be  absent.  .  .  . 

(423-487.) 

Will  you  not,  pray,  now  believe  in  no  god,  except  what 
we  believe  in  —  this  Chaos,  and  the  Clouds,  and  the 
Tongue  —  these  three  ? 

Strep.  Absolutely  I  would  not  even  converse  with  the 
others,  not  even  if  I  met  them ;  nor  would  I  sacrifice  to 
them,  nor  make  libations,  nor  offer  frankincense. 

Cho.  Tell  us  then  boldly,  what  we  must  do  for  you  ? 
for  you  shall  not  fail  in  getting  it,  if  you  honour  and  admire 
us,  and  seek  to  become  clever. 

Strep.  O  mistresses,  I  request  of  you  then  this  very 
small  favor,  that  I  be  the  best  of  the  Greeks  in  speaking 
by  a  hundred  stadia. 

Cho.  Well,  you  shall  have  this  from  us,  so  that  hence¬ 
forward  from  this  time  no  one  shall  get  more  opinions 
passed  in  the  public  assemblies  than  you. 

Strep.  Grant  me  not  to  deliver  important  opinions  ;  for 
I  do  not  desire  these,  but  only  to  pervert  the  right  for  my 
own  advantage,  and  to  evade  my  creditors. 

Cho.  Then  you  shall  obtain  what  you  desire ;  for  you 
do  not  covet  great  things.  But  commit  yourself  without 
fear  to  our  ministers. 

Strep.  I  will  do  so  in  reliance  upon  you,  for  necessity 
oppresses  me,  on  account  of  the  blood-horses,  and  the 
marriage  which  ruined  me.  Now,  therefore,  let  them  use 
me  as  they  please.  I  give  up  this  my  body  to  them  to  be 

1  The  theory  that  rain  was  the  result  of  natural  causes,  and  not  sent  by 
Zeus,  was  held  by  some  earlier  philosophers. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


75 


beaten,  to  be  hungered,  to  be  troubled  with  thirst,  to  be 
squalid,  to  shiver  with  cold,  to  flay  into  a  leathern  bottle, 
if  I  shall  escape  clear  from  my  debts,  and  appear  to 
men  to  be  bold,  glib  of  tongue,  audacious,  impudent, 
shameless,  a  fabricator  of  falsehoods,  inventive  of  words, 
a  practised  knave  in  lawsuits,  a  law-tablet,  a  thorough 
rattle,  a  fox,  a  sharper,  a  slippery  knave,  a  dissembler, 
a  slippery  fellow,  an  imposter,  a  gallows-bird,  a  black¬ 
guard,  a  twister,  a  troublesome  fellow,  a  licker-up  of 
hashes.  If  they  call  me  this,  when  they  meet  me,  let 
them  do  to  me  absolutely  what  they  please.  And  if  they 
like,  by  Ceres,  let  them  serve  up  a  sausage  out  of  me  to 
the  deep  thinkers. 

Cho.  This  man  has  a  spirit  not  void  of  courage,  but 
prompt.  Know,  that  if  you  learn  these  matters  from  me, 
you  will  possess  amongst  mortals  a  glory  as  high  as  heaven. 

Strep.  What  shall  I  experience  ? 

Cho.  You  shall  pass  with  me  the  most  enviable  of 
mortal  lives  the  whole  time. 

Strep.  Shall  I  then  ever  see  this  ? 

Cho.  Yea,  so  that  many  be  always  seated  at  your  gates, 
wishing  to  communicate  with  you  and  come  to  a  confer¬ 
ence  with  you,  to  consult  with  you  as  to  actions  and  affida¬ 
vits  of  many  talents,  as  is  worthy  of  your  abilities.  [To 
Socrates.]  But  attempt  to  teach  the  old  man  by  degrees 
whatever  you  purpose,  and  scrutinize  his  intellect,  and 
make  trial  of  his  mind. 

Soc.  Come  now,  tell  me  your  own  turn  of  mind ;  in 
order  that,  when  I  know  of  what  sort  it  is,  I  may  now, 
after  this,  apply  to  you  new  engines. 

Strep.  What  ?  By  the  gods,  do  you  purpose  to  besiege 

me  ? 

Soc.  No;  I  wish  to  briefly  learn  from  you  if  you  are 
possessed  of  a  good  memory. 

Strep.  In  two  ways,  by  Jove.  If  any  thing  be  owing 
to  me,  I  have  a  very  good  memory ;  but  if  I  owe,  unhappy 
man,  I  am  very  forgetful. 

Soc.  Is  the  power  of  speaking,  pray,  implanted  in  your 
nature  ? 

Strep.  Speaking  is  not  in  me,  but  cheating  is. 


The  methods 
of  sophistic 
teaching 
caricatured. 


76  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 
(743-846.) 

Soc.  Keep  quiet ;  and  if  you  be  puzzled  in  any  one  of 
your  conceptions,  leave  it  and  go ;  and  then  set  your  mind 
in  motion  again,  and  lock  it  up. 

Strep,  [in  great  glee~\.  O  dearest  little  Socrates! 

Soc.  What,  old  man  ? 

Strep.  I  have  got  a  device  for  cheating  them  of  the 
interest. 

Soc.  Exhibit  it. 

Strep.  Now  tell  me  this,  pray;  if  I  were  to  purchase  a 
Thessalian  witch,  and  draw  down  the  moon  by  night,  and 
then  shut  it  up,  as  if  it  were  a  mirror,  in  a  round  crest- 
case,  and  then  carefully  keep  it  — 

Soc.  What  good,  pray,  would  this  do  you  ? 

Strep.  What  ?  If  the  moon  were  to  rise  no  longer  any¬ 
where,  I  should  not  pay  the  interest. 

Soc.  Why  so,  pray  ? 

Strep.  Because  the  money  is  lent  out  by  the  month. 

Soc.  Capital !  But  I  will  again  propose  to  you  another 
clever  question.  If  a  suit  of  five  talents  should  be  entered 
against  you,  tell  me  how  you  would  obliterate  it. 

Strep.  How  ?  how  ?  I  do  not  know  ;  but  I  must  seek. 

Soc.  Do  not  then  always  revolve  your  thoughts  about 
yourself ;  but  slack  away  your  mind  into  the  air,  like  a 
cock-chafer  tied  with  a  thread  by  the  foot. 

Strep.  I  have  found  a  very  clever  method  of  getting  rid 
of  my  suit,  so  that  you  yourself  would  acknowledge  it. 

Soc.  Of  what  description  ? 

Strep.  Have  you  ever  seen  this  stone  in  the  chemists’ 
shops,  the  beautiful  and  transparent  one,  from  which  thev 
kindle  fire  ? 

Soc.  Do  you  mean  the  burning-glass  ? 1 

Strep.  .  I  do.  Come,  what  would  you  say,  pray,  if  I  were 
to  take  this,  when  the  clerk  was  entering  the  suit,2  and  were 
to  stand  at  a  distance,  in  the  direction  of  the  sun,  thus,  and 
melt  out  the  letters  of  my  suit  ? 

Soc.  Cleverly  done,  by  the  Graces ! 

1  At  that  time  ranked  with  precious  stones. 

2  This  was  done  upon  a  waxen  tablet,  which  was  then  hung  up  in  the  court 
for  public  inspection. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


Strep.  Oh !  how  I  am  delighted,  that  a  suit  of  five  tal¬ 
ents  has  been  cancelled ! 

Soc.  Come  now,  quickly  seize  upon  this. 

Strep.  What  ? 

Soc.  How,  when  engaged  in  a  lawsuit,  you  could  over¬ 
turn  the  suit,  when  you  were  about  to  be  cast,  because  you 
had  no  witnesses. 

Strep.  Most  readily  and  easily. 

Soc.  Tell  me,  pray. 

Strep.  Well  now,  I  tell  you.  If,  while  one  suit  was  still 
pending,  before  mine  was  called  on,  I  were  to  run  away 
and  hang  myself. 

Soc.  You  talk  nonsense. 

Strep.  By  the  gods  would  I !  for  no  one  will  bring  an 
action  against  me  when  I  am  dead. 

Soc.  You  talk  nonsense.  Begone;  I  can’t  teach  you 
any  longer. 

Strep.  Why  so  ?  Yea,  by  the  gods,  O  Socrates  ! 

Soc.  You  straightway  forget  whatever  you  learn.  For, 
what  now  was  the  first  thing  you  were  taught  ?  Tell  me. 

Strep.  Come,  let  me  see :  nay,  what  was  the  first  ? 
What  was  the  first  ?  Nay,  what  was  the  thing  in  which  we 
knead  our  flour  ?  Ah  me  !  what  was  it  ? 

Soc.  Will  you  not  pack  off  to  the  devil,  you  most  for¬ 
getful  and  most  stupid  old  man  ? 

Strep.  Ah  me,  what  then,  will  become  of  me,  wretched 
man  ?  For  I  shall  be  utterly  undone,  if  I  do  not  learn  to 
ply  the  tongue.  Come,  oh,  ye  Clouds,  give  me  some  good 
advice. 

Cho.  We,  old  man,  advise  you,  if  you  have  a  son  grown 
up,  to  send  him  to  learn  in  your  stead. 

Strep.  Well,  I  have  a  fine  handsome  son,  but  he  is  not 
willing  to  learn.  What  must  I  do  ? 

Cho.  But  you  permit  him  ? 

Strep.  Yes,  for  he  is  robust  in  body,  and  in  good  health, 
and  is  come  of  the  high-plumed  dames  of  Coesyra.  I  will 
go  for  him,  and  if  he  be  not  willing,  I  will  certainly  drive 
him  from  my  house.  [  To  Socrates.]  Go  in  and  wait  for 
me  for  a  short  time.  [Exit, 

Cho.  Do  you  perceive  that  you  are  soon  about  to  obtain 
the  greatest  benefits  through  us  alone  of  the  gods?  For 


The 

Sophists’ 
claim  that 
they  could 
teach  any¬ 
one  ridi¬ 
culed. 


The  new 
ideas  and 
practices, 
being  super 
ficial,  are 
quickly 
gained,  and 
are  easily 
spread. 


78  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

this  man  is  ready  to  do  everything  that  you  bid  him.  But 
you,  while  the  man  is  astounded  and  evidently  elated,  hav¬ 
ing  perceived  it,  will  quickly  fleece  him  to  the  best  of  your 
power.  [Exit  Socrates.]  For  matters  of  this  sort  are  some¬ 
how  accustomed  to  turn  the  other  way. 

\_Enter  Strepsiades  and  Phidippides.] 

Strep.  By  Mist,1  you  certainly  shall  not  stay  here  any 
longer  !  but  go  and  gnaw  the  columns  of  Megacles.2 

Phid.  My  good  sir,  what  is  the  matter  with  you,  O 
father?  You  are  not  in  your  senses,  by  Olympian  Jupiter! 

Strep.  See,  see!  “Olympian  Jupiter !  ”  Whatfolly!  To 
think  of  your  believing  in  Jupiter,  as  old  as  you  are ! 

Phid.  Why,  pray,  did  you  laugh  at  this  ? 

Strep.  Reflecting  that  you  are  a  child,  and  have  anti¬ 
quated  notions.  Yet,  however,  approach,  that  you  may 
know  more ;  and  I  will  tell  you  a  thing,  by  learning  which 
you  will  be  a  man.  But  see  that  you  do  not  teach  this  to 
any  one. 

Phid.  Well,  what  is  it  ? 

Strep.  You  swore  now  by  Jupiter. 

Phid.  I  did. 

Strep.  Seest  thou,  then,  how  good  a  thing  is  learning  ? 
There  is  no  Jupiter,  O  Phidippides! 

Phid.  Who  then  ? 

Strep.  Vortex  reigns,  having  expelled  Jupiter. 

Phid.  Bah  !  Why  do  you  talk  foolishly  ? 

Strep.  Be  assured  that  it  is  so. 

Phid.  Who  says  this  ? 

Strep.  Socrates  the  Melian,3  and  Chaerephon,  who 
knows  the  footmarks  of  fleas. 

Phid.  Have  you  arrived  at  such  a  pitch  of  frensy,  that 
you  believe  madmen  ? 

1  The  new  oath  indicates  the  effect  of  the  sophistic  teaching  on  religious 

beliefs. 

3  The  context  indicates  that,  just  before  arriving  on  the  stage,  the  boy  has 
once  more  refused  to  obey  his  father  and  has  alluded  to  his  Uncle  Megacles. 
The  father’s  suggestion  is  that  there  is  nothing  to  eat  there  save  the  columns, 
which  are  all  that  is  left  of  the  former  splendor. 

3  A  common  expression  for  atheist ,  referring  to  Diagoras  of  Melos. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


79 


Strep.  Speak  words  of  good  omen,  and  say  nothing  bad 
of  clever  men  and  wise ;  of  whom,  through  frugality,  none 
ever  shaved  or  anointed  himself,  or  went  to  a  bath  to  wash 
himself  ;  while  you  squander  my  property  in  bathing,  as  if  I 
were  already  dead.  But  go  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  learn 
instead  of  me. 

Phid.  What  good  could  any  one  learn  from  them  ? 

Strep.  What,  really !  Whatever  wisdom  there  is  amongst 
men.  And  you  will  know  yourself,  how  ignorant  and  stupid 
you  are.  But  wait  for  me  here  a  short  time.  [ Runs  off. 

Phid.  Ah  me  !  what  shall  I  do,  my  father  being  crazed  ? 
Shall  I  bring  him  into  court  and  convict  him  of  lunacy,  or 
shall  I  give  information  of  his  madness  to  the  coffin-makers? 
******* 
(865-1062.) 

Strep.  Come  hither,  come  hither,  O  Socrates !  come 
forth,  for  I  bring  to  you  this  son  of  mine,  having  per¬ 
suaded  him  against  his  will. 

[ Enter  Socrates.] 

Soc.  For  he  is  still  childish,  and  not  used  to  the  baskets 
here. 

Phid.  You  would  yourself  be  used  to  them  if  you  were 
hanged. 

Strep.  A  mischief  take  you !  do  you  abuse  your  teacher  ? 

Soc.  “Were  hanged”  quoth  ’a!  how  sillily  he  pro¬ 
nounced  it,  and  with  lips  wide  apart!  How  can  this  youth 
ever  learn  an  acquittal  from  a  trial  or  a  legal  summons,  or 
persuasive  refutation  ?  And  yet  Hyperbolus  learnt  this  at 
the  cost  of  a  talent.1 

Strep.  Never  mind  ;  teach  him.  He  is  clever  by  nature. 
Indeed,  from  his  earliest  years,  when  he  was  a  little  fellow 
only  so  big,  he  was  wont  to  form  houses  and  carve  ships 
within-doors,  and  make  little  wagons  of  leather,  and  make 
frogs  out  of  pomegranate-rinds,  you  can’t  think  how  clev¬ 
erly.  But  see  that  he  learns  those  two  causes  ;  the  better, 
whatever  it  may  be ;  and  the  worse,  which,  by  maintaining 

1  Referring  to  the  claims  of  some  of  the  Sophists  that  any  art  could  be 
taught  to  any  one,  if  proper  payment  was  made. 


8o  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


what  is  unjust,  overturns  the  better.  If  not  both ,  at  any 
rate  the  unjust  one  by  all  means. 

Soc.  He  shall  learn  it  himself  from  the  two  causes  in 
pgj-gQj^  ^ Exit  Socrates. 

Strep.  I  will  take  my  departure.  Remember  this  now, 
that  he  is  to  be  able  to  reply  to  all  just  arguments. 


The  two 
causes  rep¬ 
resenting 
“  the  old  ” 
and  “  the 
new”  edu¬ 
cation. 


Their  char¬ 
acteristics 
and  methods 
in  carica¬ 
ture. 


[ Exit  Strepsiades,  and  enter  Just  Cause  and  Unjust 

Cause.] 

Just.  Come  hither!  show  yourself  to  the  spectators,  al¬ 
though  being  audacious. 

Unjust.  Go  whither  you  please;  for  I  shall  far  rather 
do  for  you,  if  I  speak  before  a  crowd. 

Just.  You  destroy  me  ?  Who  are  you  ? 

Unj.  A  cause. 

Just.  Aye,  the  worse. 

Unj.  But  I  conquer  you,  who  say  that  you  are  better 
than  I. 

Just.  By  doing  what  clever  trick? 

Unj.  By  discovering  new  contrivances. 

Just.  For  these  innovations  flourish  by  the  favour  of  these 
silly  persons. 

Unj.  No;  but  wise  persons. 

Just.  I  will  destroy  you  miserably. 

Unj.  Tell  me,  by  doing  what? 

Just.  By  speaking  what  is  just. 

Unj.  But  I  will  overturn  them  by  contradicting  them: 
for  I  deny  that  justice  even  exists  at  all. 

Just.  Do  you  deny  that  it  exists  ? 

Unj.  For  come,  where  is  it? 

Just.  With  the  gods. 

Unj.  Now  then,  if  justice  exists,  has  Jupiter  not  per¬ 
ished,  who  bound  his  own  father  ? 

Just.  Bah!  this  profanity  now  is  spreading!  Give  me 
a  basin. 

Unj.  You  are- a  dotard  and  absurd. 

Just.  You  are  debauched  and  shameless. 

Unj.  You  have  spoken  roses  of  me. 

Just.  And  a  dirty  lickspittle. 

Unj.  You  crown  me  with  lilies. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


8 1 


Just.  And  a  parricide. 

Unj.  You  don’t  know  that  you  are  sprinkling  me  with 
gold. 

Just.  Certainly  not  so  formerly,  but  with  lead. 

Unj.  But  now  this  is  an  ornament  to  me. 

Just.  You  are  very  impudent. 

Unj.  And  you  are  antiquated. 

Just.  And  through  you,  no  one  of  our  youths  is  willing 
to  go  to  school ;  and  you  will  be  found  out  some  time  or 
other  by  the  Athenians,  what  sort  of  doctrines  you  teach 
the  simple-minded. 

Unj.  You  are  shamefully  squalid. 

Just.  And  you  are  prosperous.  And  yet  formerly  you 
were  a  beggar,  saying  that  you  were  the  Mysian  Telephus,1 
and  gnawing  the  maxims  of  Pandeletus2  out  of  your  little 
wallet. 

Unj.  Oh,  the  wisdom  — 

Just.  Oh,  the  madness  — 

Unj.  Which  you  have  mentioned. 

Just.  And  of  your  city,  which  supports  you  who  ruin 
her  youth. 

Unj.  You  shan’t  teach  this  youth,  you  old  dotard. 

Just.  Yes,  if  he  is  to  be  saved,  and  not  merely  to  prac¬ 
tise  loquacity. 

Unj.  [ to  PhidippidesJ.  Come  hither,  and  leave  him  to 
rave. 

Just.  You  shall  howl,  if  you  lay  your  hand  on  him. 

Cho.  Cease  from  contention  and  railing.  But  show  to 
us,  you,  what  you  used  to  teach  the  men  of  former  times, 
and  you,  the  new  system  of  education ;  in  order  that,  hav¬ 
ing  heard  you  disputing,  he  may  decide  and  go  to  the  school 
of  one  or  the  other. 

Just.  I  am  willing  to  do  so. 

Unj.  I  also  am  willing. 


1  Telephus,  king  of  Mysia,  wounded  by  Achilles  during  the  Trojan  War, 
sought  a  cure,  at  the  direction  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  from  the  one  who  had 
wounded  him.  This  he  did,  disguised  as  a  beggar,  and  through  the  mediation 
of  Agamemnon  was  successful.  In  the  play  of  Euripides  he  is  presented  as 
an  accomplished  Sophist  in  the  guise  of  a  beggar.  Hence  the  reference. 

2  Pandeletus  was  one  of  the  minor  Sophists. 


The  “  old 
education 
described  by 
its  friend. 


82  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Cho.  Come  now,  which  of  the  two  shall  speak  first  ? 

Unj.  I  will  give  him  the  precedence  ;  and  then,  from 
these  things  which  he  adduces,  I  will  shoot  him  dead  with 
new  words  and  thoughts.  And  at  last,  if  he  mutter,  he  shall 
be  destroyed,  being  stung  in  his  whole  face  and  his  two 
eyes  by  my  maxims,  as  if  by  bees. 

Cho.  Now  the  two,  relying  on  very  dexterous  arguments 
and  thoughts,  and  sententious  maxims,  will  show  which  of 
them  shall  appear  superior  in  argument.  For  now  the 
whole  crisis  of  wisdom  is  here  laid  before  them ;  about 
which  my  friends  have  a  very  great  contest.  But  do  you, 
who  adorned  our  elders  with  many  virtuous  manners,  utter 
the  voice  in  which  you  rejoice,  and  declare  your  nature. 

Just.  I  will,  therefore,  describe  the  ancient  system  of 
education,  how  it  was  ordered,  when  I  flourished  in  the 
advocacy  of  justice,  and  temperance  was  the  fashion.  In 
the  first  place  it  was  incumbent  that  no  one  should  hear 
the  voice  of  a  boy  uttering  a  syllable ;  and  next,  that  those 
from  the  same  quarter  of  the  town  should  march  in  good 
order  through  the  streets  to  the  school  of  the  Harp-master, 
naked,  and  in  a  body,  even  if  it  were  to  snow  as  thick  as 
meal.  Then  again,  their  master  would  teach  them,  not  sit¬ 
ting  cross-legged,  to  learn  by  rote  a  song,  either  “  Pallas 
Terrible  Destroyer  of  Cities”1  or  Far  Reaching  Shriek,”  2 
raising  to  a  higher  pitch  the  harmony  which  our  fathers 
transmitted  to  us.  But  if  any  of  them  were  to  play  the  buf¬ 
foon,  or  turn  any  quavers  like  these  difficult  turns  the  pres¬ 
ent  artists  make  after  the  manner  of  Phrynis,3ffie  used  to 
be  thrashed,  being  beaten  with  many  blows,  as  banishing 
the  Muses.  And  it  behoved  the  boys,  while  sitting  in  the 
school  of  the  Gymnastic-master,  to  cover  the  thigh,  so  that 
they  might  exhibit  nothing  indecent  to  those  outside ;  then 
again,  after  rising  from  the  ground ,  to  sweep  the  sand  to¬ 
gether,  and  to  take  care  not  to  leave  an  impression  of  the 
person  for  their  lovers.  And  no  boy  used  in  those  days  to 


1  First  line  of  a  song  composed  by  Lamprocles,  son  of  Didon,  an  ancient 
Athenian  poet. 

2  First  line  of  a  song  composed  by  Cydides,  a  harper  of  Hermione. 

3  Phrynis  of  Mitylene  introduced  a  new  species  of  modulation  in  music, 
deviating  from  the  simplicity  of  the  ancients. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


S3 


anoint  himself  below  the  navel ;  so  that  their  bodies  wore 
the  appearance  of  blooming  health.  Nor  used  he  to  go  to 
his  lover,  having  made  up  his  voice  in  an  effeminate  tone, 
prostituting  himself  with  his  eyes.  Nor  used  it  to  be 
allowed  when  one  was  dining  to  take  the  head  of  a  radish, 
or  to  snatch  from  their  seniors  dill  or  parsley,  or  to  eat 
fish,  or  to  giggle,  or  to  keep  the  legs  crossed.1 

Unj.  Aye,  antiquated  and  Dipolia-like,2  and  full  of  grass¬ 
hoppers,  and  of  Cecydes,3  and  of  the  Buphonian  festival ! 4 

Just.  Yet  certainly  these  are  those  principles  by  which 
my  system  of  education  nurtured  the  men  who  fought  at 
Marathon.  But  you  teach  the  men  of  the  present  day, 
from  their  earliest  years,  to  be  wrapped  up  in  himatia ;  so 
that  I  am  choked,  when  at  the  Panathenaia5  a  fellow, 
holding  his  shield  before  his  person,  neglects  Tritogenia,6 
when  they  ought  to  dance.  Wherefore,  O  youth,  choose, 
with  confidence,  me,  the  better  cause,  and  you  will  learn 
to  hate  the  Agora,  and  to  refrain  from  baths,  and  to  be 
ashamed  at  what  is  disgraceful,  and  to  be  enraged  if  any 
one  jeer  you,  and  to  rise  up  from  seats  before  your  seniors 
when  they  approach,  and  not  to  behave  ill  toward  your 
parents,  and  to  do  nothing  else  that  is  base,  because  you 
are  to  form  in  your  mind  an  image  of  Modesty :  and  not 
to  dart  into  the  house  of  a  dancing  woman,  lest,  while  gap¬ 
ing  after  these  things,  being  struck  with  an  apple  by  a 
wanton,  you  should  be  damaged  in  your  reputation :  and 
not  to  contradict  your  father  in  any  thing ;  nor  by  calling 
him  Iapetus,7  to  reproach  him  with  the  ills  of  age,  by  which 
you  were  reared  in  your  infancy. 

1  “  Among  the  remains  of  ancient  art  there  is,  perhaps,  not  one  represent¬ 
ing  a  man,  woman,  god,  or  daemon  sitting  cross-legged.”  —  Felton. 

2  One  of  the  most  ancient  festivals  in  Attica,  in  honor  of  Jupiter,  the  pro¬ 
tector  of  cities.  These  ceremonies  had  become  antiquated  and  were  ridiculed. 

3  An  ancient  poet. 

4  Same  festival  as  the  Dipolia,  mentioned  above. 

6  The  most  ancient  and  most  important  of  Athenian  festivals,  held  in  honor 
of  Athene,  the  patron  deity  of  Athens.  The  lesser  festival  held  every  year, 
the  greater  every  fifth  year. 

6  A  surname  of  Athene. 

7  Son  of  Uranus  and  Gsea;  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  the  father  of  the 
human  race. 


84  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


How  the 
“  new  ”  edu 
cation  ap¬ 
pears  to  an 
advocate  of 
the  “  old.” 


Ideals  ot 
the  “  new  ” 
education  as 
viewed  by 
the  “  old.” 


Unj.  If  you  shall  believe  him  in  this,  O  youth,  by  Bac¬ 
chus,  you  will  be  like  the  sons  of  Hippocrates,1  and  they 
will  call  you  a  booby. 

Just.  Yet  certairly  shall  you  spend  your  time  in  the 
gymnastic  schools,  sleek  and  blooming ;  not  chattering  in 
the  market-place  rude  jests,  like  the  youths  of  the  present 
day  ;  nor  dragged  into  court  for  a  petty  suit,  greedy,  petty- 
fogging,  knavish ;  but  you  shall  descend  to  the  Academy  2 
and  run  races  beneath  the  sacred  olives  along  with  some 
modest  compeer,  crowned  with  white  reeds,  redolent  of 
yew,  and  careless  ease,  and  of  leaf-shedding  white  poplar, 
rejoicing  in  the  season  of  spring,  when  the  plane-tree 
whispers  to  the  elm.  If  you  do  these  things  which  I  say, 
and  apply  your  mind  to  these,  you  will  ever  have  a  stout 
chest,  a  clear  complexion,  broad  shoulders,  a  little  tongue, 
large  hips,  little  lewdness.  But  if  you  practise  what  the 
youths  of  the  present  day  do,  you  will  have,  in  the  first 
place,  a  pallid  complexion,  small  shoulders,  a  narrow  chest, 
a  large  tongue,  little  hips,  great  lewdness,  a  long  psephism  ; 
and  this  deceiver  will  persuade  you  to  consider  every  thing 
that  is  base  to  be  honourable,  and  what  is  honourable  to  be 
base ;  and,  in  addition  to  this,  he  will  fill  you  with  the 
lewdness  of  Antimachus.3 

Cho.  O  thou  that  practisest  most  renowned  high-tower¬ 
ing  wisdom  !  how  sweetly  does  a  modest  grace  attend  your 
words !  Happy,  therefore,  were  they  who  lived  in  those 
days,  in  the  times  of  former  men  !  In  reply,  then,  to  these, 
O  thou  that  hast  a  dainty-seeming  muse,  it  behoveth  thee 
to  say  something  new ;  since  the  man  has  gained  renown. 
And  it  appears  you  have  need  of  powerful  arguments 
against  him,  if  you  are  to  conquer  the  man,  and  not  incur 
laughter. 

Unj.  And  yet  I  was  choking  in  my  heart,  and  was  long¬ 
ing  to  confound  all  these  with  contrary  maxims.  For  I 
have  been  called  among  the  deep  thinkers  the  “worse 
cause,”  on  this  very  account,  that  I  first  contrived  how  to 


1  A  nephew  of  Pericles.  His  sons  were  often  derided  for  their  silliness. 

2  A  public  grove  in  the  suburbs  of  Athens,  where  Plato  and  his  followers 
taught. 

3  A  composer  of  lewd  songs. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


85 


speak  against  both  law  and  justice  :  and  this  art  is  worth 
more  than  ten  thousand  staters,  that  one  should  choose  the 
worse  cause,  and  nevertheless  be  victorious.  But  mark 
how  I  will  confute  the  system  of  education  on  which  he 
relies,  who  says,  in  the  first  place,  that  he  will  not  permit 
you  to  be  washed  with  warm  water.  And  yet,  on  what 
principle  do  you  blame  the  warm  baths  ? 

Just.  Because  it  is  most  vile,  and  makes  a  man 
cowardly. 

Unj.  Stop!  For  immediately  I  seize  and  hold  you  by 
the  waist  without  escape.  Come,  tell  me,  which  of  the 
sons  of  Jupiter  do  you  deem  to  have  been  the  bravest  in 
soul,  and  to  have  undergone  most  labours  ? 

Just.  I  consider  no  man  superior  to  Hercules. 

Unj.  Where,  pray,  did  you  ever  see  cold  Heraclean 
baths  ? 1  And  yet,  who  was  more  valiant  than  he  ? 

Just.  These  are  the  very  things  which  make  the  bath 
full  of  youths  always  chattering  all  day  long,  but  the 
palaestras  empty. 

Unj.  You  next  find  fault  with  their  living  in  the 
market-place  ;  but  I  commend  it.  For  if  it  had  been  bad, 
Homer  would  never  have  been  for  representing  Nestor  as 
an  orator ;  nor  all  the  other  wise  men.  I  will  return,  then, 
from  thence  to  the  tongue,  which  this  fellow  says  our 
youths  ought  not  to  exercise,  while  I  maintain  they  should. 
And,  again,  he  says  they  ought  to  be  modest :  two  very  great 
evils.  For  tell  me  to  whom  you  have  ever  seen  any  good 
accrue  through  modesty ;  and  confute  me  by  your  words.  .  .  . 
(1071-1112.)  For  [to  Phidippides]  consider,  O  youth,  all 
that  attaches  to  modesty,  and  of  how  many  pleasures  you 
are  about  to  be  deprived  —  of  women,  of  games  at  cottabus,2 
of  dainties,  of  drinking-bouts,  of  giggling.  And  yet,  what 
is  life  worth  to  you,  if  you  be  deprived  of  these  enjoy¬ 
ments  ?  Well,  I  will  pass  from  thence  to  the  necessities  of 
our  nature.  You  have  gone  astray,  you  have  fallen  in  love, 
you  have  been  guilty  of  some  adultery,  and  then  have  been 

1  Herculean  baths  were  warm  baths,  for  Athena  had  called  the  warm 
springs  of  Thermopylae  into  existence  in  order  that  Heracles  might  refresh 
himself.  This  passage  is  a  type  of  the  “  sophistic  ”  reasoning. 

2  A  Greek  game,  popular  at  drinking  bouts. 


Method  of 
the  “  new  ” 
education 
caricatured. 


86  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Popularity 
of  the  new 
educators 
and  of  their 
methods  of 
gaining 
converts. 


caught.  You  are  undone,  for  you  are  unable  to  speak. 
But  if  you  associate  with  me,  indulge  your  inclination, 
dance,  laugh,  and  think  nothing  disgraceful.  For  if  you 
should  happen  to  be  detected  as  an  adulterer,,  you  will 
make  this  reply  to  him,  that  you  have  done  him  no  in 
jury”  :  and  then  refer  him  to  Jupiter,  how  even  he  is  over¬ 
come  by  love.  And  yet,  how  could  you,  who  are  a  mortal, 

have  greater  power  than  a  god  ? 

Just.  But  what,  if  he  should  suffer  the  radish  through 
obeying  you,  and  be  depillated  with  hot  ashes  ? .  What 
argument  will  he  be  able  to  state,  to  prove  that  he  is  not  a 
blackguard  ? 

Unj.  And  if  he  be  a  blackguard,  what  harm  will  he  suffei  . 
Just.  Nay,  what  could  he  ever  suffer  still  greater  than 

this  ?  f 

Unj.  What  then  will  you  say,  if  you  be  conquered  by 

me  in  this? 

Just.  I  will  be  silent :  what  else  can  I  do  ? 

Unj.  Come  now,  tell  me  ;  from  what  class  do  the  advo¬ 
cates  come  ? 

Just.  From  the  blackguards. 

Unj.  I  believe  you.  What  then?  from  what  class  do 

the  tragedians  come  ? 

Just.  From  the  blackguards. 

Unj.  You  say  well.  But  from  what  class  do  the  public 
orators  come  ? 

Just.  From  the  blackguards. 

Unj.  Then  have  you  perceived  that  you  say  nothing  to 
the  purpose  ?  And  look  which  class  among  the  audience 
is  the  more  numerous. 

Just.  Well  now,  I’m  looking. 

Unj.  What,  then,  do  you  see? 

Just.  By  the  gods,  the  blackguards  to  be  far  more 
numerous.  This  fellow,  at  any  rate,  I  know ;  and  him 
yonder ;  and  this  fellow  with  the  long  hair. 

Unj.  What,  then,  will  you  say  ? 

Just.  We  are  conquered.  Ye  blackguards,  by  the  gods, 
receive  my  cloak, 1  for  I  desert  to  you. 


1  An  allusion  to  Socrates’  ceremony  of  stripping  his  disciples  before  they 
were  initiated  into  his  school. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


87 


[. Exeunt  the  two  Causes,  and  reenter  Socrates  and 

Strepsiades.] 

Soc.  What  then  ?  Whether  do  you  wish  to  take  and 
lead  away  this  your  son,  or  shall  I  teach  him  to  speak? 

Strep.  Teach  him,  and  chastise  him  ;  and  remember 
that  you  train  him  properly ;  on  the  one  side  able  for 
petty  suits ;  but  train  his  other  jaw  able  for  the  more  im¬ 
portant  causes. 

Soc.  Make  yourself  easy  ;  you  shall  receive  him  back  a 
clever  sophist.  .  .  . 

Phidippides  receives  instruction  from  the  Sophists.  Meanwhile  the 
creditors  with  summons-witnesses  call  upon  Strepsiades.  These  he 
first  confounds  with  “  Sophists’  ”  arguments  and  then  drives  away  with  a 
whip. 

(1265-1346.) 

Amynias.  Do  not  jeer  me,  my  friend ;  but  order  your 
son  to  pay  me  the  money  which  he  received ;  especially 
as  I  have  been  unfortunate. 

Strep.  What  money  is  this  ? 

Amyn.  That  which  he  borrowed. 

Strep.  Then  you  were  really  unlucky,  as  I  think. 

Amyn.  By  the  gods,  I  fell  while  driving  my  horses. 

Strep.  Why,  pray,  do  you  talk  nonsense,  as  if  you  had 
fallen  from  an  ass  ? 

Amyn.  Do  I  talk  nonsense,  if  I  wish  to  recover  my 
money  ? 

Strep.  You  can’t  be  in  your  senses  yourself. 

Amyn.  Why,  pray  ? 

Strep.  You  appear  to  me  to  have  had  your  brains 
shaken  as  it  were. 

Amyn.  And  you  appear  to  me,  by  Hermes,  to  be  going 
to  be  summoned,  if  you  will  not  pay  me  the  money. 

Strep.  Tell  me  now,  whether  do  you  think  that 
Jupiter  always  rains  fresh  rain  on  each  occasion,  or  that 
the  sun  draws  from  below  the  same  water  back  again  ? 1 

Amyn.  I  know  not  which  ;  nor  do  I  care. 

Strep.  How  then  is  it  just  that  you  should  recover  your 
money,  if  you  know  nothing  of  meteorological  matters  ? 

1  A  common  subject  of  discussion. 


The  newly 
acquired 
learning  put 
to  a  test. 


The  immoral 
character  of 
the  new 
learning 
furnishes  the 
plot  to  the 
comedy. 


88  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Amyn.  Well,  if  you  are  in  want,  pay  me  the  interest  of 
my  money. 

Strep.  What  sort  of  an  animal  is  this  interest  ? 

Amyn.  Most  assuredly  the  money  is  always  becoming 
more  and  more  every  month  and  every  day  as  the  time 
slips  away. 

Strep.  You  say  well.  What  then  ?  Is  it  possible  that 
you  consider  the  sea  to  be  greater  now  than  formerly  ? 

Pas.  No,  by  Jupiter,  but  equal:  for  it  is  not  fitting 
that  it  should  be  greater. 

Strep.  And  how  then,  you  wretch,  does  this  become 
no  way  greater,  though  the  rivers  flow  into  it,  while  you 
seek  to  increase  your  money  ?  Will  you  not  take  yourself 
off  from  my  house  ?  Bring  me  the  goad.  [ Enter  servant 
with  a  goad.] 

Amyn.  I  call  you  to  witness  these  things. 

Strep,  [beating  him].  Go  !  why  do  you  delay  ?  Won’t 
you  march,  Mr.  Blood-horse  ? 

Amyn.  Is  not  this  an  insult,  pray  ? 

Strep.  Will  you  move  quickly  ?  [Pricks  him  behind 
with  the  goad.]  I’ll  lay  on  you,  goading  you  behind,  you 
out-rigger.  Do  you  fly  ?  [Amynias  runs  off.]  I  thought 
I  should  stir  you,  together  with  your  wheels  and  your  two- 
horse  chariots.  [Exit  Strepsiades. 

Cho.  What  a  thing  it  is  to  love  evil  courses!  For  this 
old  man,  having  loved  them,  wishes  to  withhold  the  money 
which  he  borrowed.  And  he  will  certainly  meet  with 
something  to-day,  which  will  perhaps  cause  this  Sophist  to 
suddenly  receive  some  misfortune,  in  return  for  the  knav¬ 
eries  he  has  begun.  For  I  think  that  he  will  presently 
find  what  has  been  long  boiling  up,  that  his  son  is  skilful 
to  speak  opinions  opposed  to  justice,  so  as  to  overcome 
all  with  whomsoever  he  holds  converse,  even  if  he  advance 
most  villanous  doctrines ;  and  perhaps,  perhaps  his  father 
will  wish  that  he  were  even  speechless. 

Strep.  [ running  out  of  the  house  pursued  by  his  son]. 
Hollo !  Hollo !  O  neighbors  and  kinsfolk  and  fellow- 
tribesmen,  defend  me,  by  all  means,  who  am  being  beaten ! 
Ah  me,  unhappy  man,  for  my  head  and  jaw !  Wretch ! 
do  you  beat  your  father  ? 

Phid.  Yes,  father. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


89 


Strep.  You  see  him  owning  that  he  beats  me. 

Phid.  Certainly. 

Strep.  O  wretch,  and  parricide,  and  house-breaker ! 

Phid.  Say  the  same  things  of  me  again,  and  more.  Do 
you  know  that  I  take  pleasure  in  being  much  abused  ? 

Strep.  You  blackguard ! 

Phid.  Sprinkle  me  with  roses  in  abundance. 

Strep.  Do  you  beat  your  father  ? 

Phid.  And  will  prove,  too,  by  Jupiter,  that  I  beat  you 
with  justice. 

Strep.  O  thou  most  rascally!  Why,  how  can  it  be 
just  to  beat  a  father? 

Phid.  I  will  demonstrate  it,  and  will  overcome  you  in 
argument. 

Strep.  Will  you  overcome  me  in  this  ? 

Phid.  Yea,  by  much  and  easily.  But  choose  which  of 
the  two  Causes  you  wish  to  speak.1 

Strep.  Of  what  two  Causes  ? 

Phid.  The  better,  or  the  worse  ? 

Strep.  Marry,  I  did  get  you  taught  to  speak  against 
justice,  by  Jupiter,  my  friend,  if  you  are  going  to  persuade 
me  of  this,  that  it  is  just  and  honourable  for  a  father  to  be 
beat  by  his  sons  ! 

Phid.  I  think  I  shall  certainly  persuade  you :  so  that, 
when  you  have  heard,  not  even  you  yourself  will  say  any 
thing  against  it. 

Strep.  Well,  now,  I  am  willing  to  hear  what  you  have 
to  say. 

******* 

(1408-1450.) 

Phid.  I  will  pass  over  to  that  part  of  my  discourse  where 
you  interrupted  me ;  and  first  I  will  ask  you  this :  Did  you 
beat  me  when  I  was  a  boy  ? 

Strep.  I  did,  through  good  will  and  concern  for  you. 

Phid.  Pray  tell  me,  is  it  not  just  that  I  also  should  be 
well  inclined  towards  you  in  the  same  way,  and  beat  you, 
since  this  is  to  be  well  inclined  —  to  give  a  beating?  For 
why  ought  your  body  to  be  exempt  from  blows,  and  mine 

1  It  was  characteristic  of  the  Sophists  to  be  indifferent  as  to  which  side  of  a 
question  they  should  support. 


The  new 
learning  is 
destructive 
to  old  Greek 
morality, 


90  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

not  ?  And  yet  I  too  was  born  free.  The  boys  weep,  and 
do  you  not  think  it  right  that  a  father  should  weep  ?  You 
will  say  that  it  is  ordained  by  law  that  this  should  be  the 
lot  of  boys.  But  I  would  reply,  that  old  men  are  boys 
twice  over,  and  that  it  is  the  more  reasonable  that  the  old 
should  weep  than  the  young,  inasmuch  as  it  is  less  just 
that  they  should  err. 

Strep.  It  is  no  where  ordained  by  law  that  a  father 
should  suffer  this. 

Phid.  Was  it  not  then  a  man  like  you  and  me,  who  first 
proposed  this  law,  and  by  speaking  persuaded  the  ancients  ? 
Why  then  is  it  less  lawful  for  me  also  in  turn  to  propose 
henceforth  a  new  law  for  the  sons,  that  they  should  beat 
their  fathers  in  turn  ?  But  as  many  blows  as  we  received 
before  the  law  was  made,  we  remit;  and  we  concede  to 
them  our  having  been  well  thrashed  without  return. 
Observe  the  cocks  and  these  other  animals,  how  they 
punish  their  fathers  ;  and  yet,  in  what  do  they  differ  from 
us,  except  that  they  do  not  write  decrees  ? 

Strep.  Why  then,  since  you  imitate  the  cocks  in  all 
things,  do  you  not  sleep  on  a  perch  ? 

Phid.  It  is  not  the  same  thing,  my  friend ;  nor  would  it 
appear  so  to  Socrates. 

Strep.  Therefore  do  not  beat  me ;  otherwise  you  will 
one  day  blame  yourself. 

Phid.  Why,  how  ? 

Strep.  Since  I  am  justly  entitled  to  chastise  you ;  and 
you  to  chastise  your  son,  if  you  should  have  one. 

Phid.  But  if  I  should  not  have  one,  I  shall  have  wept 
for  nothing,  and  you  will  die  laughing  at  me. 

Strep.  To  me  indeed,  O  comrades,  he  seems  to  speak 
justly;  and  I  think  we  ought  to  concede  to  them  what  is 
fitting.  For  it  is  proper  that  we  should  weep,  if  we  do  not 
act  justly. 

Phid.  Consider  still  another  maxim. 

Strep.  No  ;  for  I  shall  perish  if  I  do. 

Phid.  And  yet  perhaps  you  will  not  be  vexed  at  suffer¬ 
ing  what  you  now  suffer. 

Strep.  How,  pray  ?  for  inform  me  what  good  you  will 
do  me  by  this  ? 

Phid.  I  will  beat  my  mother,  just  as  I  have  you. 


The  New  Greek  Education  91 

Strep.  What  do  you  say  ?  what  do  you  say  ?  This  other 
again,  is  a  greater  wickedness. 

Phid.  But  what  if,  having  the  worst  Cause,  I  shall  con¬ 
quer  you  in  arguing,  proving  that  it  is  right  to  beat  one’s 
mother  ? 

Strep.  Most  assuredly,  if  you  do  this,  nothing  will  hinder 
you  from  casting  yourself  and  your  Worse  Cause  into  the 
pit1  along  with  Socrates.  —  These  evils  have  I  suffered 
through  you,  O  Clouds,  having  intrusted  all  my  affairs 
to  you.  ... 

Against  the  Sophists :  An  Oration  hy  Isocrates 

If  all  those  who  undertake  instruction,  would  speak  the 
truth,  nor  make  greater  promises  than  they  can  perform, 
they  would  not  be  accused  by  the  illiterate.  Now,  those 
who  inconsiderately  have  dared  to  boast,  have  been  the 
cause  that  those  men  seem  to  have  reasoned  better,  who 
indulge  their  indolence,  than  such  as  study  philosophy : 
for,  first,  who  would  not  detest  and  despise  those  who  pass 
their  time  in  sophistic  chicanery  ?  who  pretend  indeed,  that 
they  seek  truth,  but,  from  the  beginning  of  their  promises, 
labour  to  speak  falsities ;  for  I  think  it  manifest  to  all,  that 
the  faculty  of  foreknowing  future  things  is  above  our  nature : 
nay,  we  are  so  far  from  such  prudence,  that  Homer,  who, 
for  his  wisdom,  has  acquired  the  highest  fame,  has  some¬ 
times  introduced  gods  in  his  poem,  consulting  about  futu¬ 
rity  ;  not  that  he  knew  the  nature  of  their  minds,  but  that 
he  would  show  to  us,  that  this  was  one  of  those  things  which 
are  impossible  for  man.  These  men  are  arrived  at  that 
pitch  of  insolence,  that  they  endeavor  to  persuade  the 
younger,  that,  if  they  will  be  their  disciples,  they  shall 
know  what  is  best  to  be  done,  and  thereby  be  made  happy; 
and,  after  they  have  erected  themselves  into  teachers  of 
such  sublime  things,  they  are  not  ashamed  to  ask  of  them 
four  or  five  minas ;  though,  did  they  sell  any  other  pos¬ 
session  for  much  less  than  its  value,  they  would  not  hesi¬ 
tate  to  grant  themselves  mad.  But  now  exposing  to  sale 

1  At  the  base  of  the  Hill  of  the  Nymphs,  into  which  criminals  or  their  bodie* 
were  cast. 


and  to 
old  Greek 
religion. 


Many  igno¬ 
rant  or  un¬ 
scrupulous 
teachers 
have 

brought  the 
entire  pro¬ 
fession  of 
“  Sophists  ” 
into  disre¬ 
pute. 


92  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Material 
gain  placed 
above  moral 
influence. 


Their  false 
claims  bring 
all  instruc¬ 
tion  into 
disrepute. 


They  profess 
to  teach 
civic  wisdom 
and  to  give 
oratorical 
power. 


all  virtue  and  happiness  (if  we  will  believe  them),  they  dare 
argue,  that,  as  being  wise  men,  they  ought  to  be  the  pre¬ 
ceptors  of  others ;  yet  they  say  indeed,  that  they  are  not 
indigent  of  money,  while,  to  diminish  its  idea,  they  call  it 
pitiful  gold  and  silver;  though  they  require  a  trifling  gain, 
and  only  promise  to  make  those  next  to  immortal,  who  will 
commence  their  disciples.  But  what  is  the  absurdest  of 
all,  is,  that  they  are  diffident  of  those  very  persons  from 
whom  they  are  to  receive  their  reward,  though  they  them¬ 
selves  are  to  teach  them  justice ;  for  they  make  an  agree¬ 
ment,  that  the  money  shall  be  deposited  with  those  whom 
they  never  taught.  Doing  right  in  regard  of  their  own 
security,  but  acting  contrary  to  their  own  promises :  for  it 
becomes  those  who  teach  any  other  thing,  by  a  cautious 
bargain  to  avoid  controversy  (for  nothing  impedes,  but  that 
those  who  are  ingenious  in  other  respects,  may  not  be  hon¬ 
est  in  regard  of  contracts);  yet  how  can  it  be  but  absurd, 
that  they,  who  pretend  to  teach  virtue  and  temperance  as 
an  art,  should  not  chiefly  trust  to  their  own  disciples ;  for 
they  who  are  just  towards  other  men,  will  certainly  not 
trespass  against  those,  by  whom  they  were  made  both  good 
and  equitable. 

When  therefore  some  of  the  unlearned,  considering  all 
these  things,  see  those  who  profess  teaching  wisdom  and 
happiness,  indigent  themselves  of  many  things,  requiring 
a  small  sum  of  their  scholars,  and  observing  contradictions 
in  silly  sentences,  though  they  see  them  not  in  actions ; 
professing  likewise,  that  they  know  futurity,  yet  not  capable 
of  speaking  or  deliberating  properly  of  things  present ;  and 
that  those  are  more  consistent  with  themselves,  and  do  more 
things  right  who  follow  common  opinions,  than  those  who 
say  they  are  possessed  of  wisdom  :  when  they  see  this, 
I  say,  they  think  such  disputations  mere  trifles,  a  loss  of 
time  in  idle  things,  and  not  a  real  improvement  of  the 
human  mind. 

Nor  is  it  just  to  blame  these  men  only,  but  those  like¬ 
wise  who  profess  to  teach  civil  science  to  the  citizens ; 
for  they  also  disregard  truth  ;  and  think  it  artful,  if  they 
draw  as  many  as  possible,  by  the  smallness  of  the  recom- 
pence,  and  the  greatness  of  their  promises,  and  so  receive 
something  of  them :  and  they  are  so  stupid,  and  imagine 


The  New  Greek  Education 


93 


others  so,  that  though  they  write  orations  more  inaccurate 
than  some  who  are  unlearned  speak  extempore,  yet  they 
promise  they  will  make  their  disciples  such  orators,  that 
they  shall  omit  nothing  in  the  nature  of  things  ;  nay,  that 
they  will  teach  them  eloquence,  like  grammar ;  not  con¬ 
sidering  the  nature  of  each,  but  thinking,  that  on  account 
of  the  excellence  of  their  promises,  they  will  be  admired, 
and  the  study  of  eloquence  seem  of  higher  value;  not 
knowing,  that  arts  render  not  those  famous  who  insolently 
boast  of  them,  but  those  who  can  find  out  and  express 
whatever  is  in  them.  .  But  I  would  purchase  willingly,  at 
a  great  price,  that  philosophy  could  effect  this ;  perhaps, 
then,  I  should  not  be  left  the  farthest  behind,  nor  have 
the  least  share  of  its  benefits:  but  as  the  nature  of  the 
thing  is  not  so,  I  would  have  these  triflers  to  be  silent ; 
for  I  see  reflections  not  only  cast  upon  the  faculty,  but 
that  all  are  accused  who  are  conversant  in  the  same 
studies.  I  wonder  when  I  see  those  thought  worthy  of  Rhetoric 
having  scholars,  who  perceive  not  they  produce  a  fixed  and  gram- 
art,  and  bound  down  by  rules,  for  example  of  that  which  mar  can  be 
depends  chiefly  on  genius.  Is  there  any  one,  excepting  ^"do-  ”0t 
them,  who  is  ignorant,  that,  as  for  letters  and  grammar,  quence. 
they  are  unchangeable,  and  the  same,  and  that  we  always 
use  the  same  words  about  those  things;  but  that  the 
nature  of  eloquence  is  quite  the  contrary:  for  what  has 
been  said  by  another  is  not  equally  useful  to  him  who 
speaks  after ;  but  he  is  the  most  excellent  in  this  art,  who 
speaks  worthily  indeed  of  his  subject,  but  also  those  things 
which  never  were  invented  by  others.  The  greatest  dif¬ 
ference  betwixt  these  arts  is  this :  it  is  impossible  orations 
should  be  good,  unless  there  be  in  them  an  observation  of 
time  and  decorum  ;  but  there  is  no  need  of  this  in  letters. 

Wherefore  those  who  use  such  foreign  examples,  ought 
rather  to  pay  than  receive  money,  because,  wanting  much 
instruction  themselves,  they  pretend  to  teach  others.  But 
if  I  ought  not  only  to  accuse  others,  but  explain  my  own 
sentiments,  all  wise  men,.  I  believe,  will  agree  with  me,  Eloquence 
that  many,  studious  of  philosophy,  have  led  a  private  life ;  depends 
but  that  some  others,  though  they  never  were  the  scholars  U]P(jnt  natural 
of  sophists,  were  skilled  both  in  eloquence  and  governing  proved  by 
the  state ;  for  the  faculty  of  eloquence,  and  all  other  in_  instruction. 


Kind  of  in¬ 
struction 
necessary. 


These 

Sophists  are 
wrong,  not 
only  in  their 
method  of 
education, 
but  also 
in  their 
purpose. 


Virtue  and 
temperance 
cannot  be  so 
taught. 


94  Souvcc  Book  of  the  Histovy  of  Education 

genuity,  is  innate  in  men,  and  is  the  portion  of  such  as 
are  exercised  by  use  and  experience;  though  instruction 
renders  such  more  knowing  in  art,  and  better  qualified  for 
life  :  for  learning  has  taught  them  to  draw,  as  it  were, 
from  a  store,  what  else  perhaps  they  would  but  casually 
light  on.  But  as  for  those  who  are  of  a  weaker  genius,  it 
will  never  render  them  adroit  pleaders,  or  good  orators; 
but  it  will  make  them  excel  themselves,  and  become  more 
prudent  in  many  things.  Since  I  am  advanced  so  far,  I 
will  speak  more  clearly  of  this  topic ;  I  say  then,  it  is  no 
difficult  matter  to  learn  those  forms  or  orders  of  things, 
by  which  we  know  how  to  compose  orations,  if  any  one 
puts  himself  under  the  care  not  of  such  as  easily  vaunt 
themselves,  but  such  as  have  the  real  science;  but,  in 
regard  of  what  relates  to  particular  things,  which  we  must 
first  see,  and  mix  together,  and  dispose  in  order,  and,  be¬ 
sides,  not  lose  opportunities,  but  vary  the  whole  discourse 
with  arguments,  and  conclude  it  in  a  harmonious  and 
musical  manner:  these  things,  I  say,  require  great  care, 
and  are  the  province  of  a  manly  and  wise  mind ;  and  the 
scholar  must,  besides  his  having  necessary  ingenuity,  per¬ 
fectly  instruct  himself  in  the  different  kinds  of  orations, 
and  be  exercised  in  the  practice :  but  it  becomes  the  mas¬ 
ter  to  explain  all  these  as  accurately  as  possible,  so  as  to 
omit  nothing  which  may  be  taught.  As  for  the  rest,  show 
himself  such  an  example,  that  they  who  can  imitate  and 
express  it,  may  be  able  to  speak  in  a  more  beautiful  and 
elegant  manner  than  others.  In  whatever  regard  any 
thing  of  what  I  have  mentioned  is  wanting,  it  must  follow, 
that  his  disciples  will  be  less  perfect. 

And  for  those  sophists  who  have  lately  sprung  up,  and 
fallen  into  this  arrogance,  though  numerous  now,  they 
will  be  forced  at  last  to  conform  to  my  rules.  Now,  there 
remain  those  who  were  born  before  us,  and  have  dared  to 
write  of  arts,  not  to  be  dismissed  without  just  reprehen¬ 
sion  ;  who  have  professed,  that  they  would  teach  how  we 
should  plead  under  an  accusation,  choosing  out  the  most 
odious  expression  of  all,  which  their  enviers  ought  to  have 
done,  and  not  they  who  preside  over  this  institution ;  since 
this,  as  far  as  it  can  be  taught,  can  conduce  no  more  to  the 
composing  of  law-orations  than  all  others  :  yet  the  sophists 


The  New  Greek  Education 


95 


are  worse  than  those  who  grovel  amidst  contentions,  be¬ 
cause,  while  they  recite  such  miserable  orations,  as  did  any 
one  imitate,  he  must  become  unfit  for  all  things,  yet  affirm, 
that  virtue  and  temperance  are  taught  in  them;  but  the 
latter,  exhorting  to  popular  orations,  and  neglecting  the 
other  advantages  they  were  possessed  of,  have  suffered 
themselves  to  be  esteemed  teachers  of  bustling  in  business, 
and  of  gratifying  avarice  ;  yet  they  will  sooner  assist  those 
who  will  obey  the  precepts  of  this  learning,  in  the  habit  of 
equity  than  eloquence.  But  let  no  one  think,  that  I  imag¬ 
ine  justice  can  be  taught;  for  I  do  not  think  there  is  any 
such  art  which  can  teach  those  who  are  not  disposed  by 
nature,  either  temperance  or  justice  ;  though  I  think  the 
study  of  popular  eloquence  helps  both  to  acquire  and  prac¬ 
tice  it.  But  that  I  may  not  seem  to  accuse  other  men’s 
promises,  and  magnify  things  more  than  I  ought,  I  judge 
I  shall  easily  manifest  to  any  one  by  the  same  arguments 
with  which  I  have  persuaded  myself  that  these  things  are 
so. 


On  the  Exchange  of  Estates  ;  an  Oration  by  Isocrates 


*  If  this  speech  were  an  ordinary  specimen  of  the  Fo¬ 
rensic  1  or  Epideictic  2  class,  it  would  need  no  preface.  As 
it  is  of  a  new  kind,  its  origin  must  be  explained.  I  had 
long  known  that  some  of  the  sophists  slandered  my  pur¬ 
suits,  and  represented  me  as  a  writer  of  speeches  for  the 
law-courts.  They  might  as  well  have  called  Phidias 3  a 
doll-maker,  Zeuxis  4  or  Parrhasios  5 6  a  sign-painter.  Be¬ 
lieving  that  I  had  made  it  clear  that  my  subjects  are  not 
private  disputes  but  the  greatest  and  highest  questions, 


The  occa¬ 
sion  of  this 
speech, in 
which  Isoc¬ 
rates  de¬ 
fends 

himself  and 
his 

profession. 


1  While  the  speech  is  in  the  general  form  of  addresses  in  the  law  courts, 
yet  its  style  is  not.  It  is  a  defence  before  the  public. 

2  Demonstrative  as  opposed  to  deliberative  oratory;  oratory  of  purely  rhetor¬ 
ical  character.  This  oration  of  Isocrates  falls  between  the  two. 

8  The  greatest  of  Grecian  sculptors.  Lived  during  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

4  A  celebrated  painter  of  the  Ionic  school.  Lived  during  the  fifth  cen¬ 

tury  B.C. 

6  After  Zeuxis,  the  chief  representative  of  the  Ionic  school  of  painting.  A 
contemporary  of  Zeuxis.  These  artists  were  in  the  celebrated  contest  in  which 
Zeuxis  deceived  the  birds,  while  Parrhasius  deceived  even  Zeuxis  himself. 


g6  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

I  supposed  such  idle  calumnies  to  be  powerless.  Now, 
however,  at  the  age  of  82,  I  have  discovered  that  they 
influence  the  general  public.  A  person  who  had  been 
called  upon  to  serve  as  trierarch 1  challenged  me  to 
exchange  properties  with  him,  or  else  to  take  the  duty.2 
A  lawsuit  followed.3  The  plaintiff  dwelt  upon  the  evil 
tendency  of  my  writings,  upon  my  wealth  and  the  number 
of  my  pupils;  and  the  court  imposed  the  trierarchy. upon 
me.  The  expense  I  bore  with  equanimity  ;  but.  I  wish  to 
correct  the  prejudices  which  led  to  such  a  verdict.  This 
discourse  is  meant  as  an  image  of  my  mind  and  life.  .  It 
is  cast  into  the  form  of  a  defence  in  an  imaginary  trial. 
It  contains  some  things  that  might  be  said  in  a  law-court ; 
some,  unsuited  to  such  a  place,  but  illustrative  of  my 
philosophy ;  some,  which  may  profit  young  men  anxious 
to  learn ;  some,  taken  from  my  former  writings  and  intro- 

1  Trierarch  was  one  called  upon  to  equip  a  ship  of  war.  It  was  the  most 
expensive  of  the  liturgies,  or  services  performed  for  the  public,  required  of 
Athenian  citizens.  This  service  was  required  of  the  wealthiest  citizens  only, 
and  was  imposed  on  them  in  regular  rotation,  the  nominations  being  made 
each  year  by  the  strategi.  The  state  furnished  the  vessel,  —  that  is,  the  hull 
and  mast,  —  the  trierarch  all  the  necessary  equipment  and  complement  of 
oarsmen,  keeping  it  in  readiness  for  a  year. 

2  When  such  a  service  was  imposed  upon  a  citizen,  he  might  take  advan¬ 
tage  of  a  law,  called  the  antidosis  or  “  an  exchange,”  popularly  ascribed  to 
Solon,  though  probably  originating  in  more  democratic  times.  The  antidosis 
provided  that  a  person  nominated  to  perform  a  liturgy  might  call  upon  any 
qualified  person  not  so  charged  to  take  the  office  in  his  stead,  or  to  submit  to 
a  complete  exchange  of  property.  In  case  the  exchange  was  made,  the  first 
party  bore  the  expense  of  the  liturgia.  Courts  were  opened  for  these  pro¬ 
ceedings  at  stated  times  of  the  year.  In  the  case  of  the  trierarchy  the  magis¬ 
trates  were  the  strategi,  the  ten  popular  magistrates  elected  from  the  several 
tribes  and  having  charge  of  all  military  affairs. 

3  The  trierarchy  had  recently  been  imposed  upon  Isocrates  after  such  a 
trial,  in  which  he  had  been  challenged  to  an  exchange  of  estates.  He  dis¬ 
charged  the  duties.  This  apology  resulted,  not  as  the  actual  defence  made  in 
court,  but  as  a  discourse,  issued  later,  to  combat  the  general  prejudice  against 
his  profession.  In  the  actual  trial,  Isocrates  had  not  been  able  to  appear  on 
account  of  illness,  his  place  being  taken  and  his  defence  made  by  his  adopted 
son.  Isocrates  and  his  son  had  borne  the  trierarchy  as  well  as  other  liturgies. 
They  were  enrolled  among  the  twelve  hundred  richest  citizens. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


97 


duced  here  in  harmony  with  a  special  purpose.  The  re¬ 
sulting  whole  must  not  be  judged  as  representing  any  one 
class  of  speech,  but  as  made  up  of  several  distinct  elements 
brought  in  with  several  distinct  aims.  It  ought  to  be 
read,  not  continuously,  but  part  by  part. 

‘  The  worst  knave  is  he  who  brings  against  another 
charges  to  which  he  himself  is  liable.  Lysimachos,1  de¬ 
livering  a  composed  speech,  has  dwelt  most  of  all  upon 
the  insidious  skill  of  my  compositions.  Do  not  be  swayed 
by  calumny ;  remember  the  oath  taken  yearly  by  judges 
that  they  will  hear  impartially  accuser  and  accused.  Ere 
now  Athens  has  regretted  a  hasty  verdict ;  and  it  would 
be  shameful  that  Athenians,  reputed  in  all  else  the  most 
merciful  of  the  Greeks,  should  be  rashly  cruel  in  their  own 
law-courts.  No  one  of  you,  the  judges,  can  tell  that  he 
will  not  be  the  next  victim  of  Lysimachos.  A  good  life 
is  no  protection  from  such  men ;  they  show  their  power 
upon  the  innocent  in  order  to  be  bribed  by  the  guilty. 
Never  till  this  day  have  I  been  brought  before  judge  or 
arbitrator  \  now,  if  you  will  hear  me,  I  hope  to  prove  my 
real  character. —  Read  the  indictment.  ... 

‘  Here,  in  the  indictment,  he  charges  me  with  corrupt¬ 
ing  the  youth2  by  teaching  them  to  be  tricky  litigants. 
In  his  speech,  on  the  other  hand,  he  represents  me  as 
the  most  wonderful  of  men  ;  —  as  one  among  whose  pupils 
have  been  public  speakers,  generals,  kings,  despots.  He 
thinks  that  I  shall  be  envied  on  the  latter  account,  and  de¬ 
tested  on  the  former.  Dismiss  prejudice,  and  decide  upon 
the  merits  of  the  case.  That  my  literary  skill  has  not 
been  used  for  bad  purposes,  appears  from  the  fact  that 
I  have  no  enemies.  If  I  had,  they  would  have  profited 
by  this  trial  to  appear  against  me.  This  skill  itself,  if 
it  has  been  well  used,  is  a  claim  to  esteem.  The  difference 
between  me  and  a  writer  of  law-speeches  will  appear  if 
you  compare  our  modes  of  life.  Men  frequent  the  places 

1  A  fictitious  person,  who  stands  for  the  challenger  in  the  real  trial  and  for 
demagogues  in  general;  for  the  decision  against  Isocrates  was  the  result  of 
the  appeals  to  popular  prejudices  made  by  the  challenger. 

The  common  charge  against  the  Sophists  and  the  new  educators  in  gen¬ 
eral. 

H 


“  Inform¬ 
ers”  respon¬ 
sible  for  this 
charge  and 
for  the  dis¬ 
repute  of  the 
Sophists. 


Charges 

made 

against 

Isocrates; 

incidentally 

against  all 

Sophists. 


His  defence. 


98  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


His  interest 
has  been,  not 
in  forensic 
rhetoric, 


but  in 

Panhellenic 

politics. 


His  influ¬ 
ence  not 
harmful,  but 
beneficial  to 
the  public. 


from  which  they  draw  their  subsistence.  Those  who 
subsist  by  your  litigations  almost  live  in  the  law-courts. 
No  one  has  ever  seen  me  in  a  council-chamber,  at  the 
archon’s  office,  before  judges,  before  arbitrators.  Petti¬ 
foggers  thrive  at  home;  my  prosperity  has  always  been 
found  abroad.  Is  it  probable  that  Nikokles 1  of  Cyprus, 
sovereign  judge  among  his  people,  should  have  rewarded 
me  for  aiding  him  to  become  a  pleader  ?  No  mere  writer 
of  law-speeches  has  ever  had  pupils  ;  I  have  had  many. 
But  it  is  not  enough  to  show  that  my  line  of  work  has 
not  been  this.  I  will  show  you  what  it  has  been. 

‘  First,  it  must  be  remembered  that  there  are  as  many 
branches  of  prose  as  of  poetry.  Some  prose-writers  have 
spent  their  lives  in  tracing  the  genealogies  of  the  Heroes. 
Others  have  been  critics  of  the  poets.  Others  have  com¬ 
piled  histories  of  wars.  Others  have  woven  discussions 
into  dialogues.  My  work  has  lain  in  yet  another  field, - 
in  the  composition  of  discourses  bearing  upon  the  politics 
of  all  Hellas,  and  fitted  for  recitation  at  Panhellenic  gath¬ 
erings.  Such  discourses  evidently  stand  nearer  to  poetry 
than  to  forensic  rhetoric.  Their  language  is  more  imagina¬ 
tive  and  more  ornate ;  there  is  greater  amplitude,  more 
scope  for  originality,  in  the  thoughts  which  they  strive  to 
express.  They  are  as  popular  as  poems  ;  and  the  art  of 
writing  them  is  much  studied.  Unlike  forensic  speeches, 
they  deal  with  matters  of  universal  interest ;  they  have  a 
lasting  value,  independent  of  any  special  occasion.  Be¬ 
sides,  he  who  is  a  master  of  these  could  succeed  also  in 
a  law-court ;  but  not  vice  versa.  At  these  I  have  worked  ; 
and  have  got  by  them  a  reputation  better  than  law-courts 
could  give. 

‘  I  am  ready  to  impose  the  severest  terms  upon  myself. 
Punish  me,  not  merely  if  my  writings  are  proved  harmful 
but  if  they  are  not  shown  to  be  matchless.  It  is  not  neces¬ 
sary  here  to  argue  on  probabilities.  My  writings  are  them¬ 
selves  the  facts  in  question.  Samples  of  them  shall  be 
shown  to  you,  and  you  shall  judge  for  yourselves.  The 


1  King  of  Salamis,  in  Cyprus.  When  he  succeeded  his  father  in  374  b.c. 
he  celebrated  the  latter’s  obsequies  with  great  splendor.  Isocrates  was  en¬ 
gaged  to  deliver  the  eulogy. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


99 


discourse  from  which  the  first  sample  shall  be  taken  was 
written  when  Sparta  was  at  the  head  of  Greece  and  Athens 
in  a  low  estate.  It  seeks  to  rouse  Hellas  against  Persia ; 
and  disputes  the  claim  of  Sparta  to  sole  leadership.1  .  .  . 

‘Is  the  writer  of  this  a  “corrupter  of  young  men,”  or 
their  inciter  to  noble  daring  ?  Does  he  deserve  punish¬ 
ment  ;  or  is  he  to  be  thanked  for  having  so  praised  Athens 
and  your  ancestors  that  former  writers  on  the  same  theme 
feel  remorse,  and  intending  ones,  despair  ? 

‘  Some  who,  themselves  unable  to  create,  can  only 
criticise,  will  say  that  this  is  ‘  graceful  ’  (they  could  not 
bring  themselves  to  say  ‘good’);  but  that  praise  of  the 
past  is  less  valuable  than  censure  of  present  mistakes. 
You  shall  hear,  then,  part  of  another  speech  in  which  I 
assume  this  office  of  censor.  Its  immediate  subject  is  the 
peace  with  Chios,  Rhodes  and  Byzantium ;  it  goes  on  to 
show  the  drawbacks  to  a  maritime  supremacy ;  and 
ends  by  addressing  to  Athens  exhortation,  censure  and 
advice.2  .  .  . 

‘You  have  now  heard  parts  of  two  discourses;  a  short 
passage  from  a  third  shall  be  read,  in  order  that  you  may 
see  how  the  same  tendency  goes  through  all  that  I  have 
written.  Here,  addressing  Nikokles  of  Cyprus,  I  did  not 
aim  at  regular  composition,  but  merely  strung  together 
a  number  of  detached  precepts  upon  government.  It  is 
not  for  their  literary  merit,  but  simply  as  showing  the  spirit 
of  my  dealing  with  princes  as  well  as  with  private  men, 
that  they  are  quoted  here.  One  who  so  boldly  advised  a 
king  to  care  for  his  people,  would  surely  be  no  less  frank 
in  the  popular  cause  under  a  democracy. —  I  begin  by  blam¬ 
ing  the  usual  neglect  of  special  preparation  by  a  monarch ; 
and  then  urge  Nikokles  to  regard  his  office  as  a  task  calling 
for  serious  labor.3  .  .  . 

‘  This  shall  be  the  last  of  these  long  extracts ;  but  I  re¬ 
serve  the  right  of  referring  in  detail  to  my  own  writings 
whenever  it  can  be  useful.  I  offered  just  now  to  bear  any 

1  Here  is  read  an  extract  from  the  Panegyrikos,  secs.  51-99. 

8  Here  is  read  an  extract  from  the  speech  On  the  Peace,  secs.  25-56;  secs. 
132  to  end. 

3  Here  is  read  an  extract  from  the  discourse  To  Nikokles,  secs.  14-39. 


Evidence 
from  various 
speeches. 


ioo  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Character  of 
his  teaching 
proven  by 
the  char¬ 
acter  of  his 
pupils, 


and  of  his 
friends, 


and  by  his 
influence  on 
public 
officers. 


penalty,  not  merely  if  it  could  be  shown  that  my  writings 
were  harmful,  but  unless  it  could  be  shown  that  they  were 
incomparable.  That  boast  has  been  justified.  What  attempt 
could  be  holier  or  more  righteous  than  the  attempt  to  praise 
our  ancestors  worthily  of  their  exploits  ;  what  theme  nobler 
than  his  who  urges  Hellenes  to  unite  against  barbarians  ? 
Good  laws  are  allowed  to  be  the  greatest  blessings  to  hu¬ 
man  life.  Yet  these  benefit  only  the  individual  city ;  my 
discourses  profit  all  Hellas.  It  is  easier  to  be  a  legislator 
than  to  be  a  competent  adviser  of  Athens  and  Hellas. 
The  legislator,  in  an  advanced  stage  of  civilisation,  is  often 
little  more  than  a  compiler;  the  thoughts  of  an  effective 
speaker  must  be  his  own.  Teachers  of  moral  philosophy 
differ  from  each  other  and  from  the  world  as  to  what  is 
virtue ;  the  virtue  which  I  inculcate  is  recognised  by  all. 
Those  theorists  seek  only  to  draw  disciples  to  themselves ; 
my  object  is  to  impress  a  public  duty  upon  Athens.  The 
alleged  vices  of  my  teaching  are  disproved  by  the  affection 
of  my  pupils ;  who,  at  the  end  of  three  or  four  years,  have 
left  me  with  regret.  Lysimachos  has  accused  me,  without 
a  shadow  of  proof,  of  corrupting  them ;  but  I  will  refute 
him  formally. 

‘  You  know  my  writings ;  you  shall  now  hear  who  have 
been  my  associates  from  childhood,  and  the  evidence  of 
my  contemporaries  shall  prove  the  statement.  Among  my 
friends  in  youth  were  Eunomos,  Lysitheides,  Kallippos ; 
afterwards  Onetor,  Antikles,  Philonides,  Philomelos,  Char- 
mantides.1  All  these  were  crowned  with  golden  crowns 
for  their  services  to  Athens.  Whether  you  suppose  me  to 
have  been  their  adviser  and  teacher,  or  merely  their  com¬ 
panion,  my  character  is  vindicated.  If  it  is  not,  what  would 
it  have  been  if  among  my  intimates  had  been  such  a  man 
as  Lysimachos  ?  Some  will  perhaps  say  that  I  am  citing 
good  men  whom  I  barely  knew,  but  keeping  out  of  sight 
the  rascals  who  were  my  pupils.  I  am  ready  to  waive  all 
credit  for  honourable  friendships,  and  to  bear  the  full  dis¬ 
credit  of  any  which  can  be  shown  to  have  been  disreputable. 

‘  The  general  charge  against  me  in  the  indictment  —  that 

1  Some  of  these  are  now  unknown;  some  are  identified  with  prominent  or 
wealthy  citizens  of  Athens. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


IOI 


of  corrupting  my  associates — has  been  sufficiently  answered. 
But  special  stress  has  been  laid  upon  my  friendship  with 
Timotheos ; 1  and,  since  the  interests  which  he  long  con¬ 
trolled  were  so  great,  especial  pains  have  been  taken  to 
slander  him.  I,  therefore,  who  am  supposed  to  have  been 
his  adviser  and  teacher,  cannot  be  silent.  If  he  is  shown 
to  have  been  a  bad  man,  let  me  share  the  blame.  If  he 
is  proved  to  have  been  incomparable  as  a  general  and 
as  a  citizen,  let  the  honour  be  his  alone.  Now,  in  the  first 
place,  no  general  ever  took  so  many  and  such  important 
cities.  Corcyra,  important  in  regard  to  the  Peloponnesos, 
—  Samos,  for  Ionia,  —  Sestos  and  Krithdte,  for  the  Helles¬ 
pont,  —  Potidaea,  for  Thrace,  —  were  taken  by  him  with 
slender  resources.  He  forced  Lacedaemon  into  the  pres¬ 
ent  peace,2  the  most  advantageous  ever  concluded  by 
Athens.  In  a  word,  he  took  twenty-four  towns  at  a  smaller 
outlay  than  the  single  siege  of  Melos  cost  our  fathers. 
These  exploits  were  achieved  at  a  time  when  we  were  weak 
and  our  enemies  strong.  By  what  qualities  did  Timotheos 
achieve  them  ?  He  was  not  of  the  ordinary  type  of  your 
generals,  —  neither  of  a  robust  frame,  nor  trained  in  the 
camps  of  mercenaries.  But  he  knew  against  whom,  and 
with  whose  aid,  to  make  war ;  how  to  form,  and  to  use,  a 
force  suitable  for  each  attempt ;  how  to  bear  privations, 
and  to  remedy  them ;  how  to  win  for  Athens  the  trust  and 
the  love  of  Greece.  A  general  who,  like  Lysander,  has 
one  brilliant  success  is  less  great  than  one  who  for  years 
deals  wisely  with  ever-varying  difficulties.  Yet  Timotheos 
was  brought  to  trial  for  treason;  and,  although  Iphikrates3 
took  the  responsibility  for  what  had  been  done,  Menestheus  3 
for  what  had  been  spent,  they  were  acquitted,  while  Timo¬ 
theos  was  fined  in  an  unheard-of  sum.  Ignorance,  envy, 

1  A  famous  Athenian  general,  first  appointed  to  command  in  378  B.C.  In 
356  he  was  associated  in  command  of  the  Athenian  fleet.  In  consequence  of 
his  failure  to  relieve  Samos,  he  was  fined  one  hundred  talents  —  more  than 
$100,000.  He  was  unable  to  pay  the  fine  and  died  shortly  after.  Nine-tenths 
of  the  fine  was  subsequently  remitted;  the  remaining  tenth  his  son  Colon 
expended  in  repair  of  the  walls. 

2  Peace  of  Kallias,  371  b.c. 

3  Associates  of  Timotheos  in  the  command  of  the  fleet. 


Difficulty  of 

defence 

before 

Athenian 

democracy. 

A  corrupt 

society. 


Rewards  of 

Sophists 

exaggerated. 


102  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

excitement,  go  far  to  explain  this  result ;  but  it  must  be 
owned  that  the  character  of  Timotheos  contributed  to  it. 
He  was  no  anti-democrat,  no  misanthrope,  not  arrogant; 
but  his  unbending  loftiness  of  mind  made  him  liable  to  seem 
all  this.  Against  my  advice,  he  refused  to  conciliate  the 
speakers  who  sway  the  ekklesia 1  and  those  who  direct  the 
opinion  of  private  circles.  These  men  made  it  their  busi¬ 
ness  to  frame  falsehoods  about  him  —  falsehoods  which, 
had  I  space,  I  could  bring  you  to  see  and  hate.  But  I 
must  go  back  to  my  own  case. 

‘  I  hardly  know  how  to  arrange  the  topics  on  which  it  re¬ 
mains  for  me  to  speak;  perhaps  it  will  be  best  to  take  each 
as  it  occurs.  But  here  I  am  checked  by  the  warning  of  a 
friend,  —  which  you  shall  hear.  “  If  you  describe  your 
blameless  life,”  he  said,  “you  will  only  provoke  jealousy. 
That  you  should  have  so  written  as  to  deserve  public  grati¬ 
tude,  and  that  your  intimates  should  have  been  men  whom 
Athens  delighted  to  honor ;  that,  till  now,  you  should  have 
been  a  stranger  to  lawsuits ;  that,  while  seeking  no  public 
emoluments,  you  should  have  enrolled  yourself  and  your 
son  among  the  twelve  hundred  who  pay  the  war-tax  and 
bear  the  public  services  ;  that  you  and  he  should  thrice  have 
discharged  the  trierarchy,  and  performed  the  other  ser¬ 
vices  at  a  greater  cost  than  the  laws  enjoin;  that  you 
should  receive  presents  from  abroad,  and  avoid  all  display 
at  home  —  these  things  will  but  irritate  your  judges.” 
When  my  friend  said  this,  it  seemed  to  me  that  it  would 
be  strange  if  any  reasonable  men  could  object  to  my  bear¬ 
ing  the  city’s  burdens  and  yet  declining  its  rewards.  I  de¬ 
cline  its  rewards  not  from  arrogance,  but  from  preference 
for  a  quiet  life.  It  is  not  because  I  am  very  rich  that  I 
take  so  large  a  share  of  its  burdens.  No  sophist  has  ever 
made  a  great  fortune.  Gorgias 2  of  Leontini,3  who  passed 

1  The  public  assembly,  which  had  the  final  decision  in  public  affairs.  At 
Athens  every  citizen  in  full  possession  of  his  civic  rights  was  entitled  to  take 
part  in  it  after  his  twentieth  year. 

2  A  Sophist  and  rhetorician  who  came  to  Athens  late  in  life.  He  practically 
introduced  rhetoric  into  Athens.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Socrates.  H;s 
philosophy,  as  opposed  to  the  Platonic  idealism,  was  nihilistic. 

3  In  Sicily. 


The  New  Greek  Education 


103 


much  time  in  Thessaly  when  it  was  the  richest  part  of 
Greece  —  whose  life  was  spent  in  seeking  wealth  from 
city  to  city,  and  who  had  no  family  burdens  —  left  only 
1000  staters.  The  income  of  a  sophist  must  not  be 
judged  by  that  of  a  popular  actor.  Compare  me,  if  you 
will,  with  the  most  successful  men  in  my  own  profession  ; 
and  you  will  find  that  I  have  been  at  once  a  thrifty  house¬ 
holder  and  a  liberal  citizen.  Things  have  changed  at 
Athens  since  I  was  a  boy.  Then  wealth  was  not  only  dig¬ 
nified  but  safe,  and  every  one  affected  to  be  richer  than  he 
was.  Now  it  is  more  dangerous  to  be  suspected  of  wealth 
than  of  the  worst  crime.  When  my  fortune  was  wrecked 
in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  I  resolved  to  repair  it  by 
teaching,  I  hoped  that  success  in  my  new  profession  would 
bring  credit  and  respect.  It  has  brought,  however,  only 
envy  and  slander.  Lysimachos,  who  lives  by  the  in¬ 
former’s  trade,  is  accuser  —  I,  who  have  not  preyed  on 
you,  but  have  prospered  through  the  gratitude  of  men  whom 
I  had  saved,  stand  in  danger.  Our  ancestors  made  Pindar1 
their  public  friend,2  and  voted  him  10,000  drachmas3  be¬ 
cause  he  bore  witness  that  Athens  is  the  stay  of  Hellas 
It  would  be  hard  if  I,  who  have  given  her  praise  ampler 
and  nobler  than  that,  should  not  be  allowed  even  to  end 
my  days  in  peace. 

‘  The  indictment  has  now  been  answered.  But  from  the 
first  I  have  foreseen  that  I  should  have  to  combat,  not 
merely  the  charges  against  myself,  but  the  prejudice 
against  these  studies  generally.  Reflection,  however,  as¬ 
sured  me  that  among  you  I  should  find  fairness,  and  that 
the  cause  of  Philosophy  could  be  satisfactorily  defended. 
In  the  fact  of  the  prejudice  against  it  there  is  nothing 
strange.  Athens  is  large  and  populous.  Public  opinion 

1  The  greatest  of  Greek  lyric  poets,  born  in  Thebes,  522  B.c.  His  support 
of  Athens  was  due  to  her  part  in  the  Persian  Wars.  For  this  praise  the  The¬ 
bans  fined  him  and  the  Athenians  reimbursed  him  twofold,  adding  statues 
and  other  honors. 

2  The  proxenos  might  be  either  an  honorary  appointment,  or  it  might  be 
similar  to  modern  consular  appointments  made  from  citizens  of  the  country  in 
which  they  reside,  by  a  foreign  country  which  they  are  to  represent. 

3  About  $1800  in  our  money. 


Democratic 
jealousy  of 
wealth  and 
influence. 


Not  Isoc¬ 
rates  alone, 


but  educa 
tion  is 
attacked. 


Defence  of 
the  higher 
education. 
Analogy 
with 

gymnastic. 


Proof  that 

Isocrates 

had 

discounte¬ 
nanced  false 
claims, 
proven  by 
his  essay, 
Against  the 
Sophists. 


104  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

here  is  irregular  and  vehement  as  a  winter-torrent.  It 
sweeps  down  all  men  and  all  things  that  it  chances  to 
seize.  This  has  befallen  my  studies.  But  you  must  de¬ 
cide  calmly.  Remember  that  it  is  not  my  case  alone  which 
is  at  issue,  but  the  education  of  our  youth  —  upon  which 
the  future  of  Athens  must  depend.  If  Philosophy  is  a  bad 
thing,  it  should  be  absolutely  banished;  if  it  is  a  good  thing, 
it  should  be  encouraged,  and  its  detractors  should  be  si¬ 
lenced.  I  wish  that  this  accusation  had  been  brought 
against  me  (if  it  was  to  be  brought)  at  a  time  when  I  could 
have  pleaded  the  cause  of  philosophy  with  the  vigour  of  a 
younger  man.  However,  I  will  try  to  set  before  you,  as 
well  as  I  can,  its  nature  —  its  power  —  its  relation  to  other 
sciences — the  benefits  which  it  is  able  to  confer  —  and  the 
degree  in  which  I  profess  to  impart  them.  If  the  style  of 
the  defence  is  singular,  pardon  it  to  the  difficulty  of  the 
subject. 

‘  What  Gymnastic  is  for  the  body,  Philosophy  is  for  the 
mind.  In  the  one  as  in  the  other,  the  pupil  learns  first 
the  technical  rudiments,  and  then  how  to  combine  them. 
The  physical  and  the  mental  training  will  alike  improve 
natural  powers.  But  the  master  of  the  palaestra  cannot 
make  a  great  athlete,  nor  the  teacher  of  Philosophy  a  great 
speaker.  To  make  the  latter,  three  things  are  needed  — 
capacity,  training,  and  practice.  Capacity — which  includes 
intellect,  voice,  and  nerve  —  is  the  chief  requisite.  Practice, 
however,  can  by  itself  make  a  good  speaker.  Training  is 
by  far  the  least  important  of  the  three.  It  may  be  com¬ 
plete,  and  yet  may  be  rendered  useless  by  the  absence  of 
a  single  quality  —  nerve. 

‘  Do  not  suppose  that  my  claims  are  modest  only  when  I 
address  you,  but  larger  when  I  speak  to  my  pupils.  In  an 
essay  published  when  I  first  began  to  teach,  the  excessive 
pretensions  of  some  teachers  are  expressly  blamed. — 
This  passage  will  explain  my  view.1  ...  You  see,  then, 
that  at  the  outset  as  at  the  close  of  my  career,  in  safety  as 
in  danger,  I  have  held  this  language. 

‘  This,  I  well  know,  will  not  satisfy  those  against  whose 
prejudices  I  am  contending.  Much  more  must  be  said 
before  they  can  be  converted  or  refuted.  Their  prejudice 

1  Here  is  read  an  extract  from  the  essay,  Against  the  Sophists. 


The  New  Greek  Education  105 

utters  itself  in  one  of  two  assertions  :  —  that  the  system  of 
the  sophists  is  futile ;  or  that  it  is  effectual,  but  immoral. 

‘  Those  who  say  that  it  is  futile  try  it  by  a  standard  which 
they  apply  to  none  of  those  arts  in  which  they  believe.  They 
demand  that  all  its  disciples  shall  become  finished  speakers 
in  a  year.  The  success  of  the  sophists  is,  in  fact,  equal  to 
that  of  any  other  class  of  teachers.  Some  of  their  pupils 
become  powerful  debaters ;  others  become  competent  teach¬ 
ers  ;  all  become  more  accomplished  members  of  society, 
better  critics,  more  prudent  advisers.  And  what  proves 
the  training  to  be  scientific,  is  that  all  bear  the  stamp  of  a 
common  method.  These  who  despise  such  culture  assume 
that  practice,  which  develops  every  other  faculty,  is  useless 
to  the  intellect ;  that  the  human  mind  can  educate  the  in¬ 
stincts  of  horses  and  dogs,  but  cannot  train  itself  ;  that 
tame  lions  and  learned  bears  are  possible,  but  not  instructed 
men. 

‘  Others  maintain  that  Philosophy  has  an  immoral  ten¬ 
dency,  and  hold  it  responsible  for  the  faults  of  a  few  who 
pervert  it.  I  am  not  going  to  defend  all  who  say  that  they 
are  sophists,  but  only  those  who  say  so  truly.  And  first — 
What  are  the  objects  which  tempt  men  to  be  dishonest? 
I  answer  that  the  object  is  always  one  of  three  things  — 
pleasure,  profit,  or  honour.  Could  it  be  pleasant,  profitable, 
or  honourable  for  a  sophist  that  his  pupils  should  be  known 
as  rascals  ?  It  may  perhaps  be  replied  that  men  do  not 
always  calculate ;  that  a  margin  must  be  left  for  intemper¬ 
ate  impulse.  But,  even  if  a  sophist  indulged  such  impulses 
in  himself,  it  could  be  no  more  for  his  pleasure  than  for  his 
interest  to  encourage  them  in  his  pupil.  Are  the  strangers 
who  come  from  Sicily,  from  the  Euxine  and  other  quarters 
to  the  rhetorical  schools  of  Athens  brought  hither  by  the 
desire  to  become  knaves  ?  Or,  if  that  were  their  wish, 
could  they  not  find  teachers  at  home  ?  But  the  whole 
tenor  of  their  life  among  us  proves  them  honest  men. 
Again,  if  power  in  discourse  is  in  itself  a  corrupting  thing, 
all  those  who  have  possessed  it,  and  not  some  only,  ought 
to  have  been  tainted  by  it.  Yet  the  best  statesmen  of  our 
generation  and  of  the  last  were  those  who  had  most  studied 
oratory.  To  go  back  to  old  times,  Solon,  Kleisthenes, 
Themistocles,  Perikles,  were  all  distinguished  orators : 


The 

sophistic 

education 

effectual, 


and  not 
immoral. 


The  best 
statesmen 
have  had 
some  kind 
of  training 


The  real 
corrupters 
are  the 
sycophants. 


Prejudice 
against  the 
Sophists  is 
due  to 
jealousy. 


Speech  is 
man’s  ’ 
noblest  gift. 


106  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Solon  was  even  called  one  of  the  Seven  Sophists.  Perikles 
studied  under  Anaxagoras 1  of  Klazomenae,  and  under  Da¬ 
mon,2  who  was  the  ablest  Athenian  of  his  time. 

‘  But  I  can  point  out  the  places  in  which  may  be  found 
those  who  are  really  liable  to  the  charges  falsely  brought 
against  the  sophists.  Read  the  tablets,  giving  notice  of 
lawsuits,  which  are  published  by  the  Thesmothetae,3  by  the 
Eleven,  and  by  the  Forty.4  Among  the  names  of  wrong¬ 
doers  and  of  false  accusers  which  figure  there  will  be 
found  those  of  Lysimachos  and  his  friends,  —  not  mine, 
nor  that  of  any  member  of  our  profession.  Were  we  really 
corrupters  of  youth,  our  accusers  would  have  been  the 
fathers  and  relatives  of  those  whom  we  corrupted,  —  not 
such  men  as  Lysimachos,  whose  interest  it  is  that  Athens 
should  be  demoralised.  Just  now  I  spoke  of  the  hostility 
which  some  educated  men  feel  towards  our  art.  That  hos¬ 
tility,  I  venture  to  hope,  will  have  been  disarmed  by  these 
plain  statements.  But  there  is,  I  think,  a  jealousy  which 
is  even  more  widely  spread.  It  is  because  all  ambitious 
men  wish  to  be  able  speakers,  but  are  too  indolent  to  work 
for  that  end,  that  they  dislike  those  who  are  ready  to  go 
through  the  necessary  toil.  It  is  strange  that,  while  Athe¬ 
nians  reproach  the  Thebans  and  others  with  neglecting 
culture,  they  should  revile  their  fellow-citizens  for  seeking 
it ;  that  the  goddess  of  Persuasion  should  be  honoured  with 
yearly  sacrifice,  while  those  who  wish  to  share  her  power 
should  be  regarded  as  desiring  something  evil ;  that  bodily 
training  should  be  esteemed,  while  mental  training  —  to 
which  Athens  owes  her  place  in  Hellas  —  is  slighted. 

‘  If  a  man  used  his  inherited  wealth,  his  skill  as  a  hoplite5 
or  as  an  athlete,  in  doing  harm  to  his  fellow-citizens,  he 


1  A  Greek  philosopher  of  Klazomenae  in  Asia  Minor.  He  first  introduced 
philosophy  into  Athens  in  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

2  A  celebrated  musician  and  music  teacher.  Plato  commends  him  as  a 
desirable  companion  for  young  men. 

3  The  six  junior  archons  at  Athens,  who  administered  justice  in  all  cases 
not  specifically  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  three  senior  archons,  or  some 
other  authority. 

4  Judges  who  went  on  circuit  through  the  Attic  demes  trying  minor  cases. 

6  A  heavy-armed  soldier. 


The  New  Greek  Education  107 

would  be  punished,  though  the  founders  of  his  fortune,  the 
teachers  of  his  skill,  might  be  praised.  The  gods  have 
given  us  speech  —  the  power  which  has  civilised  human 
life ;  and  shall  we  not  strive  to  make  the  best  use  of  it  ? 

‘  Lysimachos  and  such  as  he  are  not  the  only  enemies  of 
Rhetoric.  It  is  attacked  also  by  the  professors  of  Eristic.1 
Instead  of  retorting  their  reproaches,  I  wish  simply  to  aid 
you  in  estimating  their  studies  relatively  to  ours.  Eristic 
discussion,  like  Astrology  or  Geometry,  seems  to  me  not 
to  deserve  the  name  of  Philosophy,  since  it  has  no  prac¬ 
tical  bearing ;  but,  rather,  to  be  a  good  preparation  for 
Philosophy.  Schoolboys  are  trained  to  work  and  to  think 
accurately  by  grammar  and  literary  study ;  Philosophy 
forms  a  more  manly  discipline  of  the  same  sort  for  young 
men.  But  no  one  should  allow  his  mind  to  be  dried  up  by 
barren  subtleties,  or  to  drift  into  such  speculations  as  those 
with  which  the  Ionic  physicists  juggled. 

‘  Having  said  what  Philosophy  is  not,  I  must  try  to  explain 
what  (as  I  think)  it  is.  My  view  is  very  simple.  A  wise 
man  is  one  who  can  make  a  good  guess  (knowledge  being 
impossible)  as  to  what  he  ought  to  say  and  do.  A  philoso¬ 
pher,  a  lover  of  wisdom,  is  one  who  spends  his  time  in  the 
pursuits  by  which  he  may  best  gain  such  perception.  And 
what  are  these  pursuits  ?  My  answer  will  probably  shock 
you ;  but  I  should  be  ashamed  to  betray  the  truth  for  the 
sake  of  peace  in  the  fraction  of  life  remaining  to  me.  Well, 
then,  I  holdjthat  there  is  no  communicable  science  of  Virtue 
or  Justice;  but  that  a  man  ambitious  of  speaking  well,  of 
persuading  others,  and  (in  the  true  sense)  of  gain ,  will  in¬ 
cidentally  become  more  virtuous  and  more  just.  Desirous 
of  speaking  with  applause,  he  will  occupy  himself  with  the 
noblest  themes,  and  dwell  upon  the  worthiest  topics  of 
these.  Desirous  of  persuading,  he  will  strive  to  be  just, 
since  nothing  is  so  persuasive  as  a  character  which  is  felt 
to  be  upright.  Desirous  of  real  gain,  he  will  seek  the 
approval  of  the  gods  and  the  esteem  of  his  fellow-citizens. 
It  is  only  by  a  perversion  of  language  that  the  “  desire  of 
gain”  has  been  associated  with  knavery;  as  “wittiness” 
with  buffoonery,  and  “  philosophy  ”  with  the  mystifications 

1  Controversial  philosophical  discussion  of  the  character  of  the  Socratic  and 
Platonic  schools. 


Opposition 
between  the 
rhetorical 
and  the 
philosophi¬ 
cal  edu¬ 
cation. 


The  true 
nature  of 
philosophi¬ 
cal  edu¬ 
cation. 


Virtue  can¬ 
not  be 
taught;  but 
the  philos¬ 
opher  will 
be  virtuous. 


io8  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


The 

sophistic 
or  rhetorical 
education  is 
the  glory  of 
Athens. 


Contrast 
between 
ancient  re 
spect  for 
education 
and  the 
modern. 


of  the  elder  sophists.  This  conception  of  philosophy  as 
something  unpractical  —  this  tendency  to  discourage  all 
systematic  training  for  affairs  —  has  its  result  in  the  lives 
of  our  youth.  Their  occupations  are  to  cool  wine  in  the 
Enneakrunos,  —  to  drink'  in  taverns,  —  to  gamble,  —  to 
haunt  the  music-schools.  The  informers  do  not  molest 
those  who  foster  these  pursuits.  They  attack  us,  who  dis¬ 
courage  them ;  and  say  that  youths  who  spend  on  their 
education  a  tithe  of  what  others  spend  on  vice,  are  being 
corrupted. 

‘  Power  of  speaking,  when  simply  natural,  is  admired  ;  it 
is  strange,  then,  that  blame  should  be  cast  upon  the  at¬ 
tempt  to  cultivate  it.  When  acquired  by  labour,  the  faculty 
is  more  likely  to  be  used  discreetly  than  when  it  is  an 
accident  of  genius.  Athenians,  of  all  men,  ought  not  to 
despise  culture.  It  is  cultivated  intelligence  which  dis¬ 
tinguishes  men  from  beasts,  Hellenes  from  barbarians, 
Athenians  from  Hellenes.  Athens  is  regarded  as  the 
teacher  of  all  who  can  speak  or  teach  others  to  speak ;  the 
greatest  prizes,  the  best  schools,  the  most  constant  practice 
are  supplied  by  her.  For  her  to  disown  the  study  of  elo¬ 
quence  would  be  as  if  Sparta  laid  disabilities  on  military 
education  or  the  Thessalians  on  skill  in  horsemanship. 
In  athletic  prowess,  Athens  has  many  rivals ;  in  culture, 
none.  Her  intellectual  culture  is  what  most  commands 
the  admiration  of  foreigners  ;  as  the  prevalence  of  inform¬ 
ers  is  the  one  blot  to  which  they  can  point.  You  ought  to 
punish  those  who  bring  disgrace  upon  you,  and  honour 
those  who  do  you  credit.  Miltiades,  Themistokles,  Peri- 
kles,  became  great  by  the  pursuits  which  these  informers 
vilify.  Remembering  this,  strive  to  keep  the  law-courts 
pure  for  the  citizens  generally ;  and  honour  the  ablest  and 
most  cultivated  among  them  as  the  truest  guardians  of  the 
democracy. 

‘The  length  of  my  defence  has  already  passed  due  limits  ; 
but  there  are  still  a  few  words  that  I  would  say  to  you.  It 
is  bitter  to  me  to  see  the  informer’s  trade  prospering  bet¬ 
ter  than  the  cause  of  education.  Would  our  ancestors 
have  looked  for  this  ?  Solon,  eldest  of  the  Sophists,  was 
put  by  them  at  the  head  of  the  State ;  against  informers 
they  appointed  not  one  mode  of  procedure  only  but  many, 


The  New  Greek  Education 


109 


—  indictment  before  the  Thesmothetae,  impeachment  be¬ 
fore  the  Senate,  plaint  to  the  Assembly.  And  informers 
are  worse  now  than  they  were  then.  Their  audacity  has 
grown  with  the  licence  of  those  demagogues  to  whom  our 
fathers  entrusted  the  protection  of  the  Athenian  empire ; 
who,  by  reproaching  our  most  distinguished  citizens  as 
oligarchs  and  partisans  of  Sparta,  made  them  such, — who 
harassed,  and  so  estranged,  our  allies,  —  who  brought 
Athens  to  the  verge  of  slavery.  Time  is  failing  me;  I 
must  cease.  Others  conclude  by  committing  their  cause  to 
the  mercy  of  their  judges,  and  the  entreaties  of  their 
friends ;  /  appeal  to  my  past  life.  The  gods,  who  have 
protected  it  hitherto,  will  protect  it  now.  Your  verdict, 
whatever  it  may  be,  will  be  for  my  good.  Let  each  of  you 
give  what  sentence  he  will.’ 


Selections  from  the  Republic  of  Plato  relating  to  the  Sophists 

BOOK  VI 

(491-497.) 

And  may  we  not  say,  Adeimantus,  that  the  most  gifted 
minds,  when  they  are  ill-educated,  become  the  worst  ?  Do 
not  great  crimes  and  the  spirit  of  pure  evil  spring  out  of  a 
fulness  of  nature  ruined  by  education  rather  than  from 
any  inferiority,  whereas  weak  natures  are  scarcely  capable 
of  any  very  great  good  or  very  great  evil  ? 

There  I  think  that  you  are  right. 

And  our  philosopher  follows  the  same  analogy  —  he  is 
like  a  plant  which,  having  proper  nurture,  grows  and 
matures  into  all  virtue,  but,  if  sown  and  planted  in  an  alien 
soil,  becomes  the  most  noxious  of  all  weeds,  unless  saved 
by  some  divine  help.  Do  you  really  think,  as  people  are 
fond  of  saying,  that  our  youth  are  corrupted  by  Sophists, 
or  that  private  teachers  of  the  art  corrupt  them  in  any  de¬ 
gree  worth  speaking  of?  Are  not  the  public  who  say 
these  things  the  greatest  of  all  Sophists  ?  And  do  they 
not  educate  to  perfection  alike  young  and  old,  men  and 
women,  and  fashion  them  after  their  own  hearts  ? 

When  is  this  accomplished  ?  he  said. 

When  they  meet  together,  and  the  world  sits  down  at  an 


Power  of  the 
demagogue. 


Education 
wrongly 
directed,  a 
greater  evil 
than 

ignorance. 


The 

Sophists  are 
but  expo¬ 
nents  of  the 
popular 
corruption. 


no  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

assembly,  or  in  a  court  of  law,  or  a  theatre,  or  a  camp,  or 
at  some  other  place  of  resort,  and  there  is  a  great  uproar, 
and  they  praise  some  things  which  are  being  said  or  done, 
and  blame  other  things,  equally  exaggerating  in  both, 
shouting  and  clapping  their  hands,  and  the  echo  of  the 
rocks  and  the  place  in  which  they  are  assembled  redoubles 
the  sound  of  the  praise  or  blame  —  at  such  a  time  will  not 
a  young  man’s  heart  leap  within  him  ?  Will  the  influences 
of  education  stem  the  tide  of  praise  or  blame,  and  not 
rather  be  carried  away  in  the  stream  ?  And  will  he  not 
have  the  notions  of  good  and  evil  which  the  public  in 
general  have  —  he  will  do  as  they  do,  and  as  they  are, 
such  will  he  be  ? 

Yes,  Socrates;  necessity  will  compel  him. 

And  yet,  I  said,  there  is  a  still  greater  necessity,  which 
has  not  been  mentioned. 

What  is  that  ? 

The  gentle  force  of  attainder  or  confiscation  or  death, 
which,  as  you  are  aware,  these  new  Sophists  and  educa¬ 
tors,  who  are  the  public,  apply  when  their  words  are 
powerless. 

Indeed  they  do :  of  that  there  can  be  no  doubt. 

Now  what  opinion  of  any  other  Sophist,  or  of  any  pri¬ 
vate  man,  can  be  expected  to  overcome  in  such  an  unequal 
contest  ? 

None,  he  replied. 

No,  indeed,  I  said,  even  to  make  the  attempt  is  a  piece 
of  folly;  for  there  neither  is,  has  been,  nor  ever  can  be,  as 
I  think,  a  better  type  of  character,  trained  to  virtue  in  de¬ 
spite  of  them  —  I  speak,  my  friend,  of  man  only ;  what  is 
more  than  man,  as  the  proverb  says,  is  not  included :  for  I 
would  not  have  you  ignorant  that,  in  the  present  evil  state 
of  governments,  whatever  is  saved  and  comes  to  good  is 
saved  by  the  power  of  God,  as  you  may  truly  say. 

I  quite  assent,  he  replied. 

Then  let  me  crave  your  assent  also  to  a  further  observa¬ 
tion. 

What  are  you  going  to  say  ? 

Why,  that  all  those  mercenary  individuals,  whom  the 
world  calls  Sophists  and  esteems  rivals,  do  but  teach  the 
collective  opinion  of  the  many,  which  are  the  opinions  of 


The  New  Greek  Education 


1 1 1 


their  assemblies ;  and  this  is  their  wisdom.  I  might  com¬ 
pare  them  to  a  man  who  should  study  the  tempers  and 
desires  of  a  mighty  strong  beast  who  is  fed  by  him  —  he 
would  learn  how  to  approach  and  handle  him,  also  at  what 
times  and  from  what  causes  he  is  dangerous  or  the  reverse, 
and  what  is  the  meaning  of  his  several  cries,  and  by  what 
sounds,  when  another  utters  them,  he  is  soothed  or  infuri¬ 
ated ;  and  you  may  suppose  further,  that  when,  by  con¬ 
stantly  living  with  him,  he  has  become  perfect  in  all  this 
he  calls  his  knowledge  wisdom,  and  makes  a  system  or  art, 
which  he  proceeds  to  teach,  not  that  he  has  any  real  notion 
of  what  he  is  teaching,  but  he  names  this  honourable  and 
that  dishonourable,  or  good  or  evil,  or  just  or  unjust,  all  in 
accordance  with  the  tastes  and  tempers  of  the  great  brute, 
when  he  has  learnt  the  meaning  of  his  inarticulate  grunts. 
Good  he  pronounces  to  be  what  pleases  him  and  evil  what 
he  dislikes ;  and  he  can  give  no  other  account  of  them 
except  that  the  just  and  noble  are  the  necessary,  having 
never  himself  seen,  and  having  no  power  of  explaining  to 
others  the  nature  of  either,  or  the  immense  difference  be¬ 
tween  them.  Would  not  he  be  a  rare  educator  ? 

Indeed  he  would. 

And  in  what  respects  does  he  who  thinks  that  wisdom  is 
the  discernment  of  the  tastes  and  pleasures  of  the  assem¬ 
bled  multitude,  whether  in  painting  or  music,  or,  finally,  in 
politics,  differ  from  such  an  one  ?  For  I  suppose  you  will 
agree  that  he  who  associates  with  the  many,  and  exhibits 
to  them  his  poem  or  other  work  of  art  or  the  service  which 
he  has  done  the  State,  making  them  his  judges,  except 
under  protest,  will  also  experience  the  fatal  necessity  of 
producing  whatever  they  praise.  And  yet  the  reasons  are 
utterly  ludicrous  which  they  give  in  confirmation  of  their 
notions  about  the  honourable  and  good.  Did  you  ever  hear 
any  of  them  which  were  not  ? 

No,  nor  am  I  likely  to  hear. 

You  recognise  the  truth  of  what  has  been  said?  Then 
let  me  ask  you  to  consider  further  whether  the  world  will 
ever  be  induced  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  absolute 
beauty  rather  than  of  the  many  beautiful,  or  of  the  abso¬ 
lute  in  each  kind  rather  than  of  the  many  in  each  kind  ? 

Certainly  not. 


Popular 
opinion 
opposed  to 
philosophi¬ 
cal  knowl¬ 
edge. 


Why 

philosophy 
is  unpopular. 


1 1 2  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Then  the  world  cannot  possibly  be  a  philosopher  ? 

Impossible. 

And  therefore  philosophers  must  inevitably  fall  under 
the  censure  of  the  world  ? 

They  must. 

And  of  individuals  who  consort  with  the  mob  and  seek 
to  please  them  ? 

That  is  evident. 

Then,  do  you  see  any  way  in  which  the  philosopher  can 
be  preserved  in  his  calling  to  the  end  ?  and  remember 
what  we  were  saying  of  him,  that  he  was  to  have  knowl¬ 
edge  and  memory  and  courage  and  magnanimity  — 
these  were  admitted  by  us  to  be  the  true  philosopher’s 
gifts. 

Yes. 

Now,  will  not  such  an  one  be,  from  the  first,  in  all  things 
first  among  all,  especially  if  his  bodily  endowments  are 
like  his  mental  ones  ? 

Certainly,  he  said. 

And  his  friends  and  fellow-citizens  will  want  to  use  him 
as  he  gets  older  for  their  own  purposes  ? 

No  question. 

Falling  at  his  feet,  they  will  make  requests  to  him  and 
do  him  honour  and  flatter  him,  because  they  want  to  get 
into  their  hands  now,  the  power  which  he  will  one  day 
possess. 

That  often  happens,  he  said. 

And  what  will  he  do  under  such  circumstances,  especially 
if  he  be  a  citizen  of  a  great  city,  rich  and  noble,  and  a  tall 
proper  youth  ?  Will  he  not  be  full  of  boundless  aspirations, 
and  fancy  himself  able  to  manage  the  affairs  of  Hellenes 
and  of  barbarians,  and  therefore  will  he  not  dilate  and 
elevate  himself  in  the  fulness  of  vain  pomp  and  senseless 
pride  ? 

To  be  sure  he  will. 

Now,  when  he  is  in  this  state  of  mind,  if  some  one  gently 
comes  to  him  and  tells  him  that  he  is  without  sense,  which 
he  must  have,  but  can  only  get  it  by  slaving  for  it,  do  you 
think  that,  under  such  adverse  circumstances,  he  will  be 
easily  induced  to  listen  ? 

He  would  be  very  unlikely  to  listen. 


The  New  Greek  Education  1 1 3 

But  suppose  further  that  there  is  one  person  who  has 
feeling,  and  who,  either  from  some  excellence  of  disposition 
or  natural  affinity,  is  inclined  or  drawn  towards  philosophy, 
and  his  friends  think  that  they  are  likely  to  lose  the  advan¬ 
tages  which  they  were  going  to  reap  from  his  friendship, 
what  will  be  the  effect  upon  them  ?  Will  they  not  do  and 
say  anything  to  prevent  his  learning  and  to  make  his 
teacher  powerless,  using  to  this  end  private  intrigues  as 
well  as  public  prosecutions  ? 

There  can  be  no  doubt  of  it. 

And  how  can  one  who  is  thus  circumstanced  ever 
become  a  philosopher? 

Impossible. 

Then  were  we  not  right  in  saying  that  even  the  very 
qualities  which  make  a  man  a  philosopher  may,  if  he  be 
ill-educated,  serve  to  divert  him  from  philosophy,  no  less 
than  riches  and  their  accompaniments  and  the  other  so- 
called  goods  of  life? 

We  were  quite  right. 

Thus,  my  excellent  friend,  is  brought  about  the  ruin  and 
failure  of  the  natures  best  adapted  to  the  best  of  all  pur¬ 
suits,  who,  as  we  assert,  are  rare  at  any  time ;  and  this  is 
the  class  out  of  whom  come  those  who  are  the  authors  of 
the  greatest  evil  to  States  and  individuals ;  and  also  of  the 
greatest  good  when  the  tide  carries  them  in  the  direction 
of  good;  but  a  small  man  never  was  the  doer  of  any  great 
thing  either  to  individuals  or  States. 

That  is  most  true,  he  said. 

They  fall  away,  and  philosophy  is  left  desolate,  with  her 
marriage  rite  incomplete  :  for  her  own  have  forsaken  her, 
and  while  they  are  leading  a  false  and  unbecoming  life, 
other  unworthy  persons,  seeing  that  she  has  no  protector, 
enter  in  and  dishonour  her ;  and  fasten  upon  her  the 
reproaches  which  her  reprovers  utter,  who  say  of  her  vota¬ 
ries  that  some  of  them  are  good  for  nothing,  and  the 
greater  number  deserving  of  everything  that  is  bad. 

That  is  certainly  said. 

Yes ,  and  what  else  would  you  expect,  I  said,  when  you 
think  of  the  puny  creatures  who,  seeing  this  land  open  to 
them  a  land  well  stocked  with  fair  names  and  showy 
titles  like  prisoners  who  run  away  out  of  prison  into  a 


The 

Sophist  is 
the  cor¬ 
rupted  phi¬ 
losopher. 


The  ranks 
of  the 

Sophists  are 
recruited 
from  those 
unworthy  of 
an  educa¬ 
tion. 


The  char¬ 
acter  of  the 
true  phi¬ 
losopher. 


1 1 4  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

sanctuary,  take  a  leap  out  of  the  arts  into  philosophy ; 
those  who  do  so  being  probably  the  cleverest  hands  at 
their  own  miserable  crafts  ?  For,  although  philosophy  be 
in  this  evil  case,  still  there  remains  a  dignity  about  her 
which  is  not  found  in  the  other  arts.  And  many  are  thus 
attracted  by  her  whose  natures  are  imperfect  and  whose 
souls  are  marred  and  disfigured  by  their  meannesses,  as 
their  bodies  are  by  their  arts  and  crafts.  Is  not  that  true? 

Yes. 

Are  they  not  exactly  like  a  bald  little  tinker  who  has 
just  got  out  of  durance  and  come  into  a  fortune  ;  he  washes 
the  dirt  off  him  and  has  a  new  coat,  and  is  decked  out  as  a 
bridegroom  going  to  marry  his  master’s  daughter,  who  is 
left  poor  and  desolate  ? 

The  figure  is  exact. 

And  what  will  be  the  issue  of  such  marriages  ?  Will 
they  not  be  vile  and  bastard  ? 

There  can  be  no  question  of  it. 

And  when  persons  who  are  unworthy  of  education 
approach  philosophy  and  make  an  alliance  with  her  who 
is  in  a  rank  above  them,  what  sort  of  ideas  and  opinions 
are  likely  to  be  generated  ?  Will  they  not  be  sophisms 
captivating  to  the  ear,  yet  having  nothing  in  them  genuine, 
or  worthy  of  or  akin  to  true  wisdom  ? 

No  doubt,  he  said. 

Then  there  is  a  very  small  remnant,  Adeimantus,  I  said, 
of  worthy  disciples  of  philosophy :  perchance  some  noble 
nature,  brought  up  under  good  influences,  and  detained  by 
exile  in  her  service,  who  in  the  absence  of  temptation 
remains  devoted  to  her ;  or  some  lofty  soul  born  in  a  mean 
city,  the  politics  of  which  he  contemns  or  neglects  ;  and 
perhaps  there  may  be  a  few  who,  having  a  gift  for  philoso¬ 
phy,  leave  other  arts,  which  they  justly  despise,  and  come  to 
her ;  —  and  peradventure  there  are  some  who  are  restrained 
by  our  friend  Theages’  bridle  (for  Theages,  you  know,  has 
had  everything  to  draw  him  away ;  but  his  ill-health  keeps 
him  from  politics).  My  own  case  of  the  internal  sign  is 
indeed  hardly  worth  mentioning,  as  very  rarely,  if  ever, 
has  such  a  monitor  been  vouchsafed  to  any  one  else. 
Those  who  belong  to  this  small  class  have  tasted  how 
sweet  and  blessed  a  possession  philosophy  is,  and  have 


The  New  Greek  Edit  cation  115 

also  seen  and  been  satisfied  of  the  madness  of  the  multi¬ 
tude,  and  known  that  there  is  no  one  who  ever  acts  honestly 
in  the  administration  of  States,  nor  any  helper  who  defends 
the  cause  of  the  just,  by  whose  aid  he  may  be  saved.  Such 
a  defender  may  be  compared  to  a  man  who  has  fallen 
among  wild  beasts — he  would  not  join  in  the  wickedness 
of  his  fellows,  but  neither  would  he  be  able  alone  to  resist 
all  their  fierce  natures,  and  therefore  he  would  be  of  no 
use  to  the  State  or  to  his  friends,  and  would  have  to  throw 
away  his  life  before  he  had  done  any  good  to  himself  or 
others.  When  he  reflects  upon  all  this,  he  holds  his  peace, 
and  does  his  own  business.  He  is  like  one  who  retires 
under  the  shelter  of  a  wall  in  the  storm  of  dust  and  sleet 
which  the  driving  wind  hurries  along ;  and  when  he  sees 
the  rest  of  mankind  full  of  wickedness,  he  is  content  if 
only  he  can  live  his  own  life  and  be  pure  from  evil  or 
unrighteousness,  and  depart  in  peace  and  good-will,  with 
bright  hopes. 

Yes,  he  said,  and  he  will  have  done  a  great  work  before 
he  departs. 

A  great  work  —  yes;  but  not  the  greatest,  unless  he 
find  a  State  suitable  to  him ;  for  in  a  State  which  is  suit¬ 
able  to  him,  he  will  have  a  larger  growth  and  be  the  saviour 
of  his  country,  as  well  as  of  himself. 

Enough,  then,  of  the  causes  why  philosophy  is  in  such 
an  evil  name;  how  unjustly,  has  been  explained;  and  now 
is  there  anything  more  which  you  wish  to  say  ? 


IV.  GREEK  EDUCATIONAL  THEORISTS: 
THE  HISTORICAL  VIEW 


The  Period  and  the  Sources  in  General.  —  This  phase  of 
Greek  education  does  not  constitute  a  distinct  period  in 
time,  but  falls  in  that  of  the  New  Greek  Education. 
In  fact,  these  writings  form  but  one  portion  of  the  litera¬ 
ture  of  the  Attic  period,  which  is  one  of  the  essential 
features  or  results  of  the  new  education.  At  the  same 
time  the  writings  of  the  theorists  present  an  aspect  of 
Greek  education  wholly  different  from  those  treated  as 
the  old  and  the  new  education.  The  literature  on  this 
topic  is  more  voluminous  than  that  on  any  of  the  others 
so  far  treated,  and  includes  the  writings  of  Plato  and  Aris¬ 
totle  as  well  as  the  selection  from  Xenophon  first  given. 
Incidentally  these  selections,  especially  those  from  Aris¬ 
totle,  give  much  information  concerning  the  actual  prac¬ 
tices  of  Greek  schools. 

The  Problem  of  the  Theorists.  —  The  writers  of  this 
group,  while  for  the  most  part  contemporary  with  the 
Sophists,  differ  from  them  in  two  important  respects. 
The  Sophists  were  practical  teachers  and  were  interested 
in  the  educational  movement  of  the  times  chiefly  in  a 
personal  way.  They  claimed  to  be  able  to  prepare  for  a 
successful  career,  and  were  primarily  concerned  in  achiev¬ 
ing  such  a  success  for  themselves.  They  taught  for 
money  and  for  reputation,  as  do  most  teachers  at  the 
present.  Some  of  them,  as  Socrates,  had  a  profound 

1 1 6 


Educational  Theory :  Historical  View  1 1 7 

public  interest  as  well,  but  the  earlier  Sophists  were  not 
native  Athenians,  and  had  little  patriotic  or  national  inter¬ 
est.  On  the  other  hand,  the  theorists  were  profoundly 
interested  in  education  on  account  of  its  national  impor¬ 
tance,  and  so  far  as  practical  teachers,  they  were  wholly 
disinterested  and  refused  to  accept  any  remuneration  for 
their  efforts.  The  second  distinction  is  a  more  important 
one.  The  teachings  of  the  Sophists  were  wholly  critical 
and  destructive  in  character.  Their  influence  accorded 
with  the  current  tendency  to  reject  the  old  interpretations 
of  legend  and  religious  myth,  and  to  produce  a  religious 
scepticism.  At  the  same  time,  the  claims  of  the  state 
upon  the  individual  were  being  questioned,  and  an  indif¬ 
ference  or  a  self-centred  individualism  replaced  the  old 
patriotic  ardor.  In  fact,  the  old  religious  and  political 
morality  was  being  replaced  by  an  individualism  that 
made  the  individual  man  “  the  measure  of  all  things.” 
On  the  other  hand,  while  the  theorists  recognized  the 
validity  of  the  criticisms  upon  the  old  order,  they  were 
unwilling  to  accept  the  wholly  negative  and  disintegrating 
view.  Their  attempt  was  to  supply  new  moral,  religious, 
and  political  motives  and  ideals  that  would  replace  the 
old,  now  no  longer  effective.  The  Sophists  believed  that 
the  interest  of  the  individual  was  a  sufficient  motive  and 
an  adequate  ideal.  The  theorists  sought  to  find  this  in 
higher  forms  of  life  than  had  hitherto  been  realized, 
and  strove  to  develop  a  higher  morality  and  a  broader 
patriotism  than  had  hitherto  existed,  for  the  most  part,  by 
some  reform  in  education.  Some  of  these  new  educa¬ 
tional  schemes  suggested,  such  as  the  Republic ,  are  wholly 
idealistic ;  others,  such  as  the  Cyropcedia  and  the  Laws ,  are 
but  modifications  or  purifications  of  the  old  regime. 


1 1 8  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Socrates  was  the  source  of,  and  furnished  the  inspira¬ 
tion  for,  this  entire  movement  in  educational  thought. 
Though  he  has  left  no  writings,  the  character  and  the 
substance  of  his  teachings  can  be  quite  accurately  repro¬ 
duced  from  the  writings  of  his  pupils,  Xenophon  and  Plato. 
Socrates  lived  from  469  to  399  b.c.  The  earlier  portion 
of  his  life  was  spent  as  a  sculptor,  but  the  middle  and  later 
portion,  though  from  what  exact  date  is  not  known,  as  a 
teacher.  Yet  he  never  opened  a  school  or  delivered  pub¬ 
lic  lectures,  in  these  respects  differing  from  the  Sophists 
and  from  the  philosophers  who  continued  his  line  of 
thought  and  work.  His  method  was  to  engage  in  con¬ 
versation  any  interested  person,  either  old  or  young,  in 
the  market-place,  the  shop,  or  the  gymnasium.  In  the 
latter  places  he  found  abundant  opportunity,  and  there 
his  teachings  were  especially  influential  upon  those  just 
entering  that  period  of  their  education,  hitherto  devoted 
wholly  to  physical  training  and  the  service  of  the  state. 
With  these,  his  influence  was  wholly  at  variance  with  the 
old  training,  and  was  at  one  with  that  of  the  Sophists 
in  inclining  the  youth  to  neglect  the  old  training  and  to 
devote  their  time  to  intellectual  development.  His  custom 
of  teaching  wholly  through  conversation  was  of  importance 
educationally  in  that  it  introduced  an  entirely  new  method 
of  study  and  teaching.  As  opposed  to  the  old  methods  of 
the  early  philosophers  and  of  the  popular  Sophists,  this 
method  was  essentially  inductive ;  though  with  Socrates 
it  was  applied  to  a  limited  field  only,  that  of  the  phenom¬ 
ena  of  human  conduct,  as  opposed  to  the  old  interest  in 
physical  investigation  or  speculation.  It  is  through  this 
new  method  that  Socrates  came  to  be  the  founder  of 
ethics  and  of  philosophy  as  it  relates  to  the  theory  of 


Educational  Theory :  Historical  View  119 

knowledge.  At  the  same  time  the  new  method  was 
responsible  for  the  sharp  distinction  between  the  prac¬ 
tical  life  which  was  essentially  unworthy  and  to  be  escaped 
from,  and  the  ideal  life  devoted  to  subjective  good,  to  be 
attained  by  withdrawing  from,  or  rising  above,  the  ordinary 
cares  and  interests  in  life.  Hence,  so  far  as  the  effects 
upon  the  political  and  religious  obligation  of  Greek  society 
as  then  organized  were  concerned,  the  influence  of  Socrates 
was  identical  with  the  individualistic  teachings  of  the 
Sophists.  Yet  the  whole  purpose  and  spirit  of  the  teach¬ 
ing  of  Socrates  was  to  oppose  this  individualism. 

He  agreed  with  them  in  rejecting  the  external  authority 
of  the  state  or  of  the  old  religion  in  shaping  the  purpose 
of  education  or  of  life  itself ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  rejected 
their  conclusion  that  the  individual  man  furnished  the  sole 
standard.  To  Socrates  this  standard  was  furnished  by  the 
universal  in  man,  by  that  which  he  possessed  in  common 
with  all  others.  This  common  possession  was  “knowl¬ 
edge,”  as  opposed  to  the  opinion  of  the  individual,  which 
the  Sophists  had  exalted  as  the  sole  criterion  of  conduct. 
Socrates  sought  to  develop  this  knowledge  by  his  method 
of  conversation.  The  subject-matter  of  his  conversation 
and  of  his  teaching,  then,  was  knowledge,  but  knowledge 
in  the  limited  sense  already  indicated.  The  ancients  ex¬ 
pressed  this  influence  of  Socrates  in  the  saying  that  he 
brought  down  philosophy  from  heaven  to  earth.  Hitherto 
the  advanced  intellectual  life  of  the  Greeks  was  concerned 
with  astronomy  and  physics;  hereafter  it  was  concerned 
with  man’s  moral  and  intellectual  nature.  Concerning 
such  investigation,  Socrates  asks:  “Do  these  inquirers 
think  that  they  already  know  human  affairs  well  enough, 
that  they  thus  begin  to  meddle  with  the  divine  ?  Do  they 


120  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

think  that  they  shall  be  able  to  excite  or  calm  the  winds 
and  the  rain  at  pleasure,  or  have  they  no  other  view  than 
to  gratify  an  idle  curiosity  ?  Surely,  they  must  see  that 
such  matters  are  beyond  human  investigation.  Only  let 
them  recollect  how  much  the  greatest  men,  who  attempted 
the  investigation,  differ  in  their  pretended  results,  holding 
opinions  extreme  and  opposite  to  each  other,  like  those  of 
madmen.”  1  On  the  other  hand,  “  Socrates,”  says  Xeno¬ 
phon,  “  continued  discussing  human  affairs  ;  investigating, 
What  is  piety  ?  What  is  impiety  ?  What  is  the  honorable 
and  the  base?  What  is  the  just  and  the  unjust?  What 
is  temperance  or  the  unsound  mind  ?  What  is  courage  or 
cowardice  ?  What  is  a  city  ?  What  is  the  character  fit 
for  a  citizen  ?  What  is  authority  over  men  ?  What  is  the 
character  befitting  the  exercise  of  such  authority  ?  and 
other  similar  questions.  Men  who  knew  these  matters  he 
accounted  good  and  honorable ;  men  who  were  ignorant 
of  them  he  assimilated  to  slaves.”  While  Socrates  gave 
a  new  purpose  to  education,  that  of  discovering  what 
knowledge  was,  thus  furnishing  a  new  ideal  to  life  and  a 
new  basis  for  society ;  while  he  suggested  a  new  content 
to  education,  the  study  of  man’s  moral  and  intellectual 
natures ;  while  he  gave  a  new  method,  the  dialectic  or  con¬ 
versational  inductive,  —  he  did  not  suggest  any  means  for 
making  his  teachings  effective  either  through  establishing  a 
school  for  disseminating  his  ideas,  or  by  outlining  a  scheme 
of  education.  His  followers  did  both  of  these  things. 

Xenophon  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates  and  gave  the  practical 
aspect  of  his  master’s  character  and  teachings,  just  as 
Plato  gave  the  more  intellectual  aspect  of  his  character 
and  the  speculative  tendency  of  his  teaching.  Selections 

1  Xenophon,  Memorabilia ,  I.  i.  12,  etc.  Grote's  translation. 


I  2  I 


Educational  Theory:  Historical  View 

from  the  Socratic  writings  of  Xenophon  have  already  been 
given.  Xenophon’s  solution  of  the  educational  problem 
set  by  the  changes  occurring  in  Grecian  society  in  the 
fifth  and  fourth  centuries,  is  the  simplest  of  all  solutions 
offered.  It  is  found  in  the  opening  chapters  of  the  Cyro- 
padia,  one  of  his  latest  works.  In  fact,  it  was  not  written  till 
near  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  The  Cyropcedia  is  a 
political  romance,  and  is  even  less  reliable,  in  its  historical 
data,  than  Xenophon’s  other  historical  works.  It  purports 
to  be  a  biography  of  the  Persian  monarch,  Cyrus,  and  a 
description  of  the  great  Oriental  monarch.  It  is,  in  reality, 
an  exposition  of  Xenophon’s  ideal  of  government  drawn 
from  his  own  theories,  and  his  intimate  knowledge  of 
Spartan  institutions,  with  Oriental  coloring  supplied  from 
his  earlier  experience.  It  has  little  value  as  a  source  of 
information  concerning  Persian  education,  notwithstanding 
its  use  for  this  purpose.  Nor  is  it  of  more  worth  as  a 
source  concerning  the  actual  practices  of  Grecian  educa¬ 
tion,  though  many  of  its  features  are  wholly  Spartan. 
Xenophon  was  an  Athenian  by  birth  but  a  Spartan  in 
sympathies,  and  was  wholly  opposed  to  the  democratic 
tendency  in  the  Athenian  government  and  society.  His 
military  career  was  either  in  the  service  of  the  Spartan 
state  or  with  Grecian  mercenaries,  chiefly  Spartan.  His 
children  were  educated  at  Sparta,  and  his  fondness  for 
Spartan  customs  is  evident  in  his  writings.  Even  his  long 
exile  from  Athens  was  spent,  though  not  at  Sparta,  at  least 
in  neighboring  Dorian  territory. 

Xenophon’s  solution  of  the  educational  problem  was  a 
return  to  the  old  education,  in  which  the  means  and  the 
system  should  be  largely  Spartan,  with  the  ideals  those  of 
the  old  Athenian  period.  In  his  scheme  education  is 


122  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

largely  social,  that  is,  military  and  moral  in  its  purposes. 
The  intellectual  element  is  wholly  eliminated,  as  at  Sparta. 
In  respect  to  its  application  to  various  classes  in  society 
and  to  women,  it  resembles  Athenian  rather  than  Spartan 
custom.  The  classification  into  periods  is  Spartan,  as  are 
also  the  means  used,  such  as  military  drill,  hunting,  con¬ 
versation  with  elders,  the  passing  of  judgment  upon  the 
conduct  of  companions,  and  the  severe  physical  and 
dietetic  discipline.  In  depending  upon  the  general  organ¬ 
ization  of  society  as  an  educational  institution  rather  than 
upon  the  special  institution  of  schools  of  a  private  char¬ 
acter,  the  scheme  is  Spartan.  The  selective  character  of 
each  stage  in  the  educational  system  resembles  Athenian 
customs  in  that  it  restricted  the  higher  stages  of  training, 
and  hence  the  most  important  political  positions  to  the 
youths  that  came  from  the  wealthiest  families.  In  this 
respect  it  also  resembles  the  ideal  state  of  Plato,  though, 
with  the  communism  of  the  Republic ,  merit  rather  than 
wealth  and  birth  formed  the  essential  element  in  worth. 
In  general  Xenophon’s  plan  was  simply  a  restatement  of 
the  old  conservative  position,  formulated  in  Persian  rather 
than  Spartan  terms,  probably  in  deference  to  the  intense 
dislike  at  Athens  for  things  Spartan  as  a  result  of  the 
Peloponnesian  conflict.  The  solutions  offered  by  Plato 
and  Aristotle  are  much  more  elaborate  and  original,  and  of 
much  greater  influence  upon  thought. 

Selections  from  the  Cyropcedia  of  Xenophon 

CHAPTER  II 

i.  Cyrus  is  said  to  have  had  for  his  father  Cambyses, 
king  of  the  Persians.  Cambyses  was  of  the  race  of  Per- 
seidae,  who  were  so  called  from  Perseus.  It  is  agreed  that 


123 


Educational  Theory :  Historical  View 

he  was  born  of  a  mother  named  Mandane ;  and  Mandane 
was  the  daughter  of  Astyages,  king  of  the  Medes.  Cyrus 
is  described,  and  is  still  celebrated  by  the  Barbarians,  as 
having  been  most  handsome  in  person,  most  humane  in 
disposition,  most  eager  for  knowledge,  and  most  ambitious 
of  honour ;  so  that  he  would  undergo  any  labour  and  face 
any  danger  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  praise.  2.  Such  is 
the  constitution  of  mind  and  body  that  he  is  recorded  to 
have  had;  and  he  was  educated  in  conformity  with  the 
laws  of  the  Persians. 

These  laws  seem  to  begin  with  a  provident  care  for  the 
common  good ;  not  where  they  begin  in  most  other  gov¬ 
ernments  ;  for  most  governments,  leaving  each  individual 
to  educate  his  children  as  he  pleases,  and  the  advanced  in 
age  to  live  as  they  please,  enjoin  their  people  not  to  steal, 
not  to  plunder,  not  to  enter  a  house  by  violence,  not  to 
strike  any  one  whom  it  is  wrong  to  strike,  not  to  be  adul¬ 
terous,  not  to  disobey  the  magistrates,  and  other  such 
things  in  like  manner ;  and,  if  people  transgress  any  of 
these  precepts,  they  impose  punishments  upon  them. 
3.  But  the  Persian  laws,  by  anticipation,  are  careful  to 
provide  from  the  beginning,  that  their  citizens  shall  not 
be  such  as  to  be  inclined  to  any  action  that  is  bad  and 
mean.  This  care  they  take  in  the  following  manner. 
They  have  an  Agora,1  called  the  Free,  where  the  king’s 
palace  and  other  houses  for  magistrates  are  built;  all  things 
for  sale,  and  the  dealers  in  them,  their  cries  and  coarsenesses, 
are  banished  from  hence  to  some  other  place ;  that  the 
disorder  of  these  may  not  interfere  with  the  regularity  of 
those  who  are  under  instruction.  4.  This  Agora,  round  the 
public  courts,  is  divided  into  four  parts ;  of  these,  one  is 
for  the  boys,  one  for  the  youth,  one  for  the  full-grown 
men,  and  one  for  those  who  are  beyond  the  years  for  mili¬ 
tary  service.  Each  of  these  divisions,  according  to  the 
law,  attend  in  their  several  quarters ;  the  boys  and  full- 
grown  men  as  soon  as  it  is  day ;  the  elders  when  they 
think  convenient,  except  upon  appointed  days,  when  they 
are  obliged  to  be  present.  The  youth  pass  the  night 
round  the  courts,  in  their  light  arms,  except  such  as  are 
married ;  for  these  are  not  required  to  do  so,  unless  orders 

1  An  open  square,  free  from  buying  and  selling. 


Comparison 
of  character 
of  Persian 
laws  with  the 
laws  of  other 
countries. 


Their  educa¬ 
tional  insti¬ 
tution. 


Training  of 
the  boys. 


124  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Justice,  the 
aim  and  the 
substance  of 
Persian 
education. 


Training  in 
self-control, 
obedience, 
and 

temperance. 


have  been  previously  given  them ;  nor  is  it  becoming  in 
them  to  be  often  absent.  5.  Over  each  of  the  classes 
there  are  twelve  presidents,  for  there  are  twelve  distinct 
tribes  of  the  Persians.  Those  over  the  boys  are  chosen 
from  amongst  the  elders,  and  are  such  as  are  thought 
likely  to  make  them  the  best  boys ;  those  over  the  youth 
are  chosen  from  amongst  the  full-grown  men,  and  are 
such  as  are  thought  likely  to  make  them  the  best  youth ; 
and  over  the  full-grown  men,  such  as  are  thought  likely 
to  render  them  the  most  expert  in  performing  their  ap¬ 
pointed  duties,  and  in  executing  the  orders  given  by  the 
chief  magistrate.  There  are  likewise  chosen  presidents 
over  the  elders,  who  take  care  that  these  also  perform 
their  duties.  What  it  is  prescribed  to  each  age  to  do,  we 
shall  relate,  that  it  may  be  the  better  understood  how  the 
Persians  take  precautions  that  excellent  citizens  may  be 
produced. 

6.  The  boys  attending  the  public  schools,  pass  their 
time  in  learning  justice;  and  say  that  they  go  for  this 
purpose,  as  those  with  us  say  who  go  to  learn  to  read. 
Their  presidents  spend  the  most  part  of  the  day  in  dis¬ 
pensing  justice  amongst  them ;  for  there  are  among  the 
boys,  as  among  the  men,  accusations  for  theft,  robbery, 
violence,  deceit,  calumny,  and  other  such  things  as  natu¬ 
rally  occur ;  and  such  as  they  convict  of  doing  wrong,  in 
any  of  these  respects,  they  punish ;  7.  they  punish  like¬ 
wise  such  as  they  find  guilty  of  false  accusation ;  they 
appeal  to  justice  also  in  the  case  of  a  crime  for  which  men 
hate  one  another  excessively,  but  for  which  they  never  go 
to  law,  that  is,  ingratitude ;  and  whomsoever  they  find 
able  to  return  a  benefit,  and  not  returning  it,  they  punish 
severely.  For  they  think  that  the  ungrateful  are  careless 
with  regard  to  the  gods,  their  parents,  their  country,  and 
their  friends ;  and  upon  ingratitude  seems  closely  to  fol¬ 
low  shamelessness,  which  appears  to  be  the  principal  con¬ 
ductor  of  mankind  into  all  that  is  dishonourable. 

8.  They  also  teach  the  boys  self-control ;  and  it  contrib¬ 
utes  much  towards  their  learning  to  control  themselves, 
that  they  see  every  day  their  elders  behaving  themselves 
with  discretion.  They  teach  them  also  to  obey  their 
officers ;  and  it  contributes  much  to  this  end,  that  they 


I25 


Educational  Theory:  Historical  View 

see  their  elders  constantly  obedient  to  their  officers.  They 
teach  them  temperance  with  respect  to  eating  and  drink¬ 
ing  ;  and  it  contributes  much  to  this  object,  that  they  see 
that  their  elders  do  not  quit  their  stations  to  satisfy  their 
appetites,  until  their  officers  dismiss  them,  and  that  the 
boys  themselves  do  not  eat  with  their  mothers,  but  with 
their  teachers,  and  when  the  officers  give  the  signal. 
They  bring  from  home  with  them  bread,  and  a  sort  of 
cresses  to  eat  with  it;  and  a  cup  to  drink  from,  that,  if 
any  are  thirsty,  they  may  take  water  from  the  river.  They 
learn,  besides,  to  shoot  with  the  bow,  and  to  throw  the 
javelin.  These  exercises  the  boys  practise  until  they  are 
sixteen  or  seventeen  years  of  age,  when  they  enter  the 
class  of  young  men. 

9.  The  young  men  pass  their  time  thus  :  For  ten  years 
after  they  go  from  the  class  of  boys,  they  pass  the  night 
round  the  courts,  as  I  have  said  before,  both  for  the  secur¬ 
ity  and  guard  of  the  city,  and  for  the  sake  of  practising 
self-restraint;  for  this  age  seems  most  to  need  superinten¬ 
dence.  During  the  day  they  keep  themselves  at  the  com¬ 
mand  of  their  officers,  in  case  they  want  them  for  any 
public  service ;  and  when  it  is  necessary  they  all  wait  at 
the  courts.  But  whenever  the  king  goes  out  to  hunt,  he 
takes  half  the  guard  out  with  him,  and  leaves  half  of  it 
behind ;  and  this  he  does  several  times  every  month. 
Those  that  go  out  must  have  their  bow,  with  a  quiver,  a 
bill  or  small  sword  in  a  sheath,  a  light  shield,  and  two 
javelins,  one  to  throw,  and  the  other,  if  necessary,  to  use 
at  hand.  10.  They  attend  to  hunting  as  a  matter  of 
public  interest,  and  the  king,  as  in  war,  is  their  leader, 
hunting  himself,  and  seeing  that  others  do  so;  because  it 
seems  to  them  to  be  the  most  efficient  exercise  for  all  such 
things  as  relate  to  war.  It  accustoms  them  to  rise  early 
in  the  morning,  and  to  bear  heat  and  cold;  it  exercises 
them  in  long  marches,  and  in  running ;  it  necessitates 
them  to  use  their  bow  against  the  beast  that  they  hunt, 
and  to  throw  their  javelin,  wherever  he  falls  in  their  way, 
their  courage  must,  of  necessity,  be  often  sharpened  in 
the  hunt,  when  any  of  the  strong  and  vigorous  beasts  pre¬ 
sent  themselves ;  for  they  must  come  to  blows  with  the 
animal  if  he  comes  up  to  them,  and  must  be  upon  their 


Education  of 
the  young 
men. 

Military. 


In  hunting. 


Practice 

reenforces 

early 

training. 


Manhood  in 
the  service 
of  the  state, 


126  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

guard  as  he  approaches ;  so  that  it  is  not  easy  to  find  what 
single  thing,  of  all  that  is  practised  in  war,  is  not  to  be 
found  in  hunting.  1 1.  They  go  out  to  hunt  provided  with  a 
dinner,  larger,  indeed,  as  is  but  right,  than  that  of  the  boys, 
but  in  other  respects  the  same  ;  and  during  the  hunt  per¬ 
haps  they  may  not  eat  it ;  but  if  it  be  necessary  to  remain 
on  the  ground  to  watch  for  the  beast,  or  if  for  any  other 
reason  they  wish  to  spend  more  time  in  the  hunt,  they  sup 
upon  this  dinner,  and  hunt  again  the  next  day  till  supper 
time,  and  reckon  these  two  days  as  but  one,  because  they 
eat  the  food  of  but  one  day.  This  abstinence  they  prac¬ 
tise  to  accustom  themselves  to  it,  so  that,  should  it  be  nec¬ 
essary  in  war,  they  may  be  able  to  observe  it.  Those  of 
this  age  have  what  they  catch  for  meat  with  their  bread  ; 
or,  if  they  catch  nothing,  their  cresses.  And,  if  any  one 
think  that  they  eat  without  pleasure  when  they  have 
cresses  only  with  their  bread,  and  that  they  drink  without 
pleasure  when  they  drink  only  water,  let  him  recollect 
how  pleasant  barley  cake  or  bread  is  to  eat  to  one  who  is 
hungry,  and  how  pleasant  water  is  to  drink  to  one  who  is 
thirsty. 

12.  The  parties  that  remain  at  home  pass  their  time  in 
practising  what  they  learned  while  they  were  boys,  as  well 
as  other  things,  such  as  using  the  bow  and  throwing  the 
javelin;  and  they  pursue  these  exercises  with  mutual 
emulation,  as  there  are  public  contests  in  their  several 
accomplishments,  and  prizes  offered ;  and  in  whichsoever 
of  the  tribes  there  are  found  the  most  who  excel  in  skill, 
in  courage,  and  in  obedience,  the  citizens  applaud  and 
honour,  not  only  the  present  commander  of  them,  but  also 
the  person  who  had  the  instruction  of  them  when  they 
were  boys.  The  magistrates  likewise  make  use  of  the 
youth  that  remain  at  home,  if  they  want  them,  to  keep 
guard  upon  any  occasion,  to  search  for  malefactors,  to 
pursue  robbers,  or  for  any  other  business  that  requires 
strength  and  agility.  In  these  occupations  the  youth  are 
exercised. 

But  when  they  have  completed  their  ten  years,  they 
enter  into  the  class  of  full-grown  men;  13.  who,  from  the 
time  they  leave  the  class  of  youth,  pass  five  and  twenty 
years  in  the  following  manner.  First,  like  the  youth,  they 


127 


Educational  Theory :  Historical  View 

keep  themselves  at  the  command  of  the  magistrates,  that 
they  may  use  their  services,  if  it  should  be  necessary,  for 
the  public  good,  in  whatever  employments  require  the 
exertions  of  such  as  have  discretion,  and  are  yet  in  vigour. 
If  it  be  necessary  to  undertake  any  military  expedition, 
they  who  are  in  this  state  of  discipline  do  not  march  out 
with  bows  and  javelins,  but  with  what  are  called  arms  for 
close  fight,  a  corslet  over  the  breast,  a  shield  in  the  left 
hand,  such  as  that  with  which  the  Persians  are  painted, 
and,  in  the  right,  a  large  sword  or  bill.  All  the  magis¬ 
trates  are  chosen  from  this  class,  except  the  teachers  of  the 
boys;  and,  when  they  have  completed  five  and  twenty 
years  in  this  class,  they  will  then  be  something  more  than 
fifty  years  of  age,  and  pass  into  the  class  of  such  as  are 
elders,  and  are  so  called.  14.  These  elders  no  longer  go 
on  any  military  service  abroad,  but,  remaining  at  home, 
have  the  dispensation  of  public  and  private  justice;  they 
take  cognizance  of  matters  of  life  and  death,  and  have  the 
choice  of  all  magistrates  ;  and,  if  any  of  the  youth  or  full- 
grown  men  fail  in  anything  enjoined  by  the  laws,  the 
several  magistrates  of  the  tribes,  or  any  one  that  chooses, 
gives  information  of  it,  when  the  elders  hear  the  cause, 
and  pass  sentence  upon  it;  and  the  person  that  is  con¬ 
demned  remains  infamous  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 

15.  But  that  the  whole  Persian  form  of  government 
may  be  shown  more  clearly,  I  shall  go  back  a  little  ;  for, 
from  what  has  been  already  said,  it  may  now  be  set  forth 
in  a  very  few  words.  The  Persians  are  said  to  be  in  num¬ 
ber  about  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  ;  of  these  no 
individual  is  excluded  by  law  from  honours  and  magistracies, 
but  all  are  at  liberty  to  send  their  boys  to  the  public 
schools  of  justice.  Those  who  are  able  to  maintain  their 
children  without  putting  them  to  work,  send  them  to  these 
schools ;  they  who  are  unable,  do  not  send  them.  Those 
who  are  thus  educated  under  the  public  teachers,  are  at 
liberty  to  pass  their  youth  in  the  class  of  young  men ; 
they  who  are  not  so  educated,  have  not  that  liberty.  They 
who  pass  their  term  among  the  young  men,  discharging 
all  things  enjoined  by  the  law,  are  allowed  to  be  incorpo¬ 
rated  amongst  the  full-grown  men,  and  to  partake  of  all 
honours  and  magistracies ;  but  they  who  do  not  complete 


in  war, 


in  rendering 
justice,  and 
in  training 
the  boys. 


Character  of 

Persian 

institutions. 


A  class 
education. 


128  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

their  course  in  the  class  of  youth,  do  not  pass  into  that  of 
full-grown  men.  Those  who  make  their  progress  through 
the  order  of  full-grown  men  unexceptionably,  are  then 
enrolled  among  the  elders;  so  that  the  order  of  elders 
stands  composed  of  men  who  have  pursued  their  course 
through  all  things  good  and  excellent.  Such  is  the  form 
of  government  among  the  Persians,  and  such  the  care 
bestowed  upon  it,  by  the  observance  of  which  they  think 
that  they  become  the  best  citizens.  1 6.  .  .  . 

These  particulars  I  had  to  state  concerning  the  Persians 
in  general.  I  will  now  relate  the  actions  of  Cyrus,  upon 
whose  account  this  narrative  was  undertaken,  beginning 
from  his  boyhood. 


V.  GREEK  EDUCATIONAL  THEORISTS:  THE 

PHILOSOPHICAL  VIEW 


The  Period  and  the  Authority.  —  As  has  been  already 
indicated,  the  period  is  that  of  the  conflict  between  the 
old  and  the  new  educational  ideas.  Plato  is  the  most 
important  representative  of  the  educational  theorists, 
whether  judged  from  the  extent,  the  immediate  influ¬ 
ence,  or  the  permanent  suggestiveness,  of  his  writings. 
Plato  was  born  in  428  or  427  b.c.,  probably  in  Athens. 
Until  the  age  of  twenty  his  interest  was  centred  in  poetry 
and  music.  He  then  fell  under  the  influence  of  Socrates. 
From  that  time  until  the  death  of  Socrates,  eight  years 
later,  Plato  was  one  of  his  most  devoted  pupils.  The 
thirteen  years  following  the  death  of  his  master,  Plato 
devoted  to  travel  and  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  mathe¬ 
matics,  and  kindred  subjects,  chiefly  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
Egypt.  In  386  Plato  returned  permanently  to  Athens 
and  began  his  continuous  formal  teaching.  Here,  in  a 
private  home  and  garden  adjoining  the  sacred  garden  and 
gymnasium  of  Academus,  Plato  established  his  school,  the 
first  of  the  permanent  philosophical  schools.  For  thirty-six 
years  Plato  taught  a  distinguished  group  of  pupils,  drawn 
not  only  from  Athens,  but  also  from  many  distant  places 
as  well.  During  this  long  period  most  of  the  dialogues 
were  produced,  though  not  one  of  them  contains  any  defi¬ 
nite  internal  evidence  of  its  date.  For  thirty-three  years 
after  the  death  of  Plato  the  school  was  under  the  direc- 
k  129 


1 30  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Rducation 

tion  of  teachers  that  had  been  in  close  personal  contact 
with  the  founder.  During  this  period  the  Platonic  writ¬ 
ings  were  carefully  preserved  and  copies  made,  so  that  it 
is  believed  that  the  complete  works  are  extant.  In  the 
latest  group  of  the  dialogues  fall  the  two  that  contain 
the  educational  discussions,  —  the  Republic  and  the  Laws. 

The  Republic  is  the  great  constructive  work  of  Plato.  Its 
professed  subject  is,  What  is  Justice?  But  this  subject  is 
expanded  to  include  a  theory  of  psychology,  a  theory  of 
knowledge,  a  theory  of  the  soul,  a  theory  of  the  state  or 
of  politics,  a  theory  of  human  society,  or  of  ethics,  and  a 
theory  of  education,  with  the  last  of  which  alone  these 
selections  have  to  do.  Plato’s  solution  of  the  problem 
raised  by  the  conflict  between  the  new  education  and  the 
old,  is  the  formation  of  a  new  state  based  upon  the  princi¬ 
ple  of  justice,  that  principle  in  the  state  coinciding  with 
happiness,  or  rather  virtue,  in  the  individual.  To  deter¬ 
mine  the  nature  of  justice  and  the  means  of  establishing  it, 
is  the  chief  purpose  of  the  dialogue.  The  Platonic  scheme 
of  education  is  the  result.  Since  justice  is  to  be  developed 
from  the  “  knowledge  ”  or  “  intelligence  ”  of  Socrates,  the 
nature  of  justice  and  of  the  state  can  be  most  readily  dis¬ 
covered  by  an  analysis  of  the  individual.  The  faculties 
of  the  individual  are  three :  the  intelligence,  seated  in  the 
head ;  courage  or  spirit,  a  function  of  the  heart ;  the  appe¬ 
tites,  lodged  in  the  abdomen.  Each  has  its  proper  function, 
which  constitutes  its  worth.  When  properly  performed, 
the  functioning  of  the  intelligence  constitutes  prudence ; 
that  of  courage,  fortitude;  that  of  the  appetites,  temperance. 
The  combination  of  these  three  produces  individual  well¬ 
being,  or  virtue. 

By  a  similar  analysis,  the  faculties  of  society  are  found 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  131 

in  the  three  great  classes,  the  philosophic,  the  military,  and 
the  industrial.  The  virtues  of  these  classes  correspond  to 
the  virtues  of  the  faculties  of  the  individual.  The  proper 
function  of  the  first  class  is  to  rule ;  of  the  second,  is  to 
protect ;  of  the  third,  to  support.  The  combination  of 
these  virtues  in  society  produces  justice. 

Plato  defines  the  principles  that  are  yet  recognized  as 
the  basis  of  society,  the  reciprocity  of  needs  and  services, 
and  the  education  of  each  individual  for  the  performance 
of  some  function  in  this  interchange  of  services.  If  the 
Platonic  restriction  of  these  needs  and  services  to  special 
classes  is  a  marked  limitation,  it  is  to  be  recalled  that  this 
discussion  forms  one  of  the  earliest  analyses  in  the  history 
of  ethics. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  the  Socratic  solution  of  the  edu¬ 
cational  problem  was  that  the  new  state  of  society  was  to 
be  based  on  knowledge,  that  the  germs  of  knowledge  were 
inherent  in  every  human  being,  by  virtue  of  his  own  expe¬ 
rience,  and  that  these  germs  could  be  developed  by  the 
dialectic  process.  Plato  departs  from  this  solution  in  two 
important  respects.  He  elaborates  a  definite  theory  of 
knowledge,  more  restricted  than  that  of  Socrates.  As 
with  Socrates,  knowledge  in  the  Platonic  sense  consists 
of  whole  thoughts ;  but  whole  thoughts  are  ideas,  are  uni¬ 
versal  as  opposed  to  individuals.  Such  knowledge  can 
be  attained  only  by  a  few ;  while  the  germs  of  knowledge 
are  present  in  the  experience  of  every  one,  and  can  be 
developed  by  reflection  and  the  dialectic  process,  knowl¬ 
edge  itself  can  be  attained  only  by  those  who  have  a 
higher,  a  sixth  sense,  the  sense  for  ideas.  Those  who  have 
this  sense  form  the  philosophic  class,  and  they  alone  are 
free,  —  they  alone  should  rule  society.  This  is  the  second 


132  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

important  divergence  from  the  Socratic  teaching.  Knowl¬ 
edge  is  not  an  actual  possession,  or  even  a  possible  posses¬ 
sion,  of  every  human  being.  Hence  every  one  cannot  be 
free,  cannot  control  his  own  conduct  by  the  knowledge 
which  he  may  attain.  It  is  only  a  certain  limited  class,  the 
philosophers,  that  can  do  so.  The  appropriate  function  of 
these  philosophers,  then,  since  they  alone  can  see  the  truth, 
is  not  only  to  direct  their  own  conduct,  but  that  of  all  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  other  classes.  The  philosophers  are  to  be  the 
rulers  of  the  new  society,  when  “  philosophers  are  kings, 
or  the  kings  and  the  princes  of  this  world  have  the  spirit 
and  power  of  philosophy.”  The  production  of  this  class 
of  guardians,  and  the  perpetuation  of  this  ideal  state,  forms 
the  aim  of  the  scheme  of  education  elaborated  in  the 
Republic. 

The  educational  system  of  the  Repiiblic  is  designed 
especially  for  the  guardian  class  ;  though  all  classes  are 
to  profit  by  the  earlier  stages  of  instruction,  since  one  chief 
purpose  of  the  system  is  to  select  the  guardians.  The 
Republic  itself  falls  into  two  general  divisions,  each  con¬ 
taining  a  discussion  of  a  state  and  of  a  type  of  education. 
Both  the  state  and  the  education  of  the  first  division, 
Books  I.  to  V.,  inclusive,  are  very  closely  modelled  after  the 
actual  Athenian  conditions ;  in  the  second  division,  Books 
V.  to  X.,  the  state  becomes  the  ideal  kingdom  of  the  phi¬ 
losophers  and  the  education  there  given  is  that  suited  to 
develop  a  philosophic  class.  The  two  schemes  are  really 
in  opposition,  though,  as  Plato  suggests,  the  earlier  sketch 
may  be  taken  as  an  introduction  to  the  later  scheme.  The 
education  of  the  first  four  books  is  based  upon  the  accepted 
Hellenic  ideas  of  religion  and  morality,  but  in  some  re¬ 
spects  is  supplemented  and  purified.  Plato  holds  that  the 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  133 

Greeks  in  their  education  had  really  “  builded  better  than 
they  knew.  In  this  portion  of  the  Republic  he  aims  to 
base  their  practices  on  theory  instead  of  upon  experience, 
and  to  make  explicit  that  which  has  hitherto  been  but 
non-rational  custom.  Education  is  comprehended  in  its 
two  aspects,  music  and  gymnastic  ;  but  the  literary  element 
of  music  is  purified  by  the  exclusion  of  the  early  poetry 
dealing  with  mythical  subjects  and  is  supplemented  by  a 
mathematical  discipline,  while  gymnastic  is  now  organized 
as  a  moral  as  well  as  physical  discipline,  and  becomes 
largely  military  in  character.  The  chief  purpose  of  the 
discussion  presented  in  the  first  selections  is  to  clarify  the 
principles  underlying  the  old  Greek  educational  practices, 
which  had  been  developed  empirically  and  not  as  a  result  of 
reflection.  This  scheme  of  education  is  designed  for  the  first 
seventeen  or  eighteen  years  of  life,  and  is  for  all  youths, 
preparatory  to  the  more  rigid  discipline  for  those  who  can 
profit  by  the  highest  theoretical  education. 

The  education  of  the  select  guardian  class  is  described 
in  detail  in  Book  VII.  For  those  who  have  demonstrated 
themselves  worthy  of  this  higher  discipline,  the  period  from 
twenty  to  thirty  is  devoted  to  scientific  study,  chiefly  of  a 
mathematical  character.  This  division  between  the  ele¬ 
mentary  and  the  higher  education  forms  the  basis  for  the 
subsequent  division  of  the  curriculum  into  the  trivium  and 
the  quadrivium  of  the  “seven  liberal  arts.”  The  purpose 
of  this  prolonged  discipline  is  to  perfect  the  future  phi¬ 
losophers  in  the  grasp  of  fundamental  laws  and  principles 
underlying  all  life  and  thought.  This  study  is  not  to  be 
separated  from  practical  duties  of  military  and  civic  char¬ 
acter.  The  effect  of  this  combined  training  of  practical 
and  theoretical  character  is  to  eliminate  a  large  number  of 


134  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

those  who  have  passed  through  the  elementary  training, 
and  to  indicate  a  yet  more  select  class  that  can  profit  by 
the  highest  discipline  of  all,  the  philosophical.  For  the 
elect,  the  period  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  is  to  be  devoted 
wholly  to  philosophical  pursuits  and  dialectic  training. 
Only  the  ablest  minds  and  the  most  stable  characters  can 
profit  by  this  highest  of  intellectual  efforts.  From  thirty- 
five  to  fifty  these  philosophers  are  to  be  the  guardians  of 
society,  and  are  to  devote  themselves  to  the  practical  duties 
of  public  life.  After  the  fiftieth  year  the  practical  life, 
now  much  less  onerous  in  its  character,  is  again  merged 
in  philosophical  pursuits ;  that  is,  the  philosopher  who 
has  meanwhile  tested  principle  by  experience  is  prepared 
to  deepen  his  insight  into  fundamental  truth,  not  only  for 
his  own  sake,  but  for  the  benefit  of  society  as  well. 

While  Plato’s  ideal  state  was  never  realized,  the  idea 
education,  separated  from  practical  civic  life,  was  approxi¬ 
mated  in  the  formation  of  the  philosophical  schools  and 
the  mystical  religious  societies  and,  in  a  later  religious  form, 
in  the  Christian  church.  Yet  there  remains  the  educational 
truth,  essential  for  all  times,  that  education  is  a  life  process, 
and  that  it  should  not  be  divorced  at  any  time  from  actual 
life.  In  this  latter  respect  the  influence  of  Plato  was  quite 
at  variance  with  his  doctrine. 

The  Laws  form  a  marked  contrast  with  the  Republic 
both  in  the  theory  of  the  state  there  advanced  and  in  the 
scheme  of  education  there  advocated.  So  sharp  is  this 
contrast  in  some  points  that  the  authenticity  of  the  Laws 
has  been  questioned.  This  scepticism  is  based  upon  in¬ 
feriority  of  style  as  well  as  of  ideas,  but  it  finds  no  general 
support.  This  work  is  probably  the  last  of  Plato’s  com¬ 
positions,  being  written  during  the  last  seven  years  of  his 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  135 

life,  when  he  was  over  seventy  years  of  age.  In  many 
minor  characteristics  the  Laws  are  in  contrast  with  the 
other  Platonic  dialogues,  these  formal  differences  indicat¬ 
ing  a  real  change  in  the  author’s  convictions.  This  dia¬ 
logue  is  one  of  the  few  in  which  Socrates  does  not  appear, 
and  is  the  only  one  the  scene  of  which  is  not  located  at 
Athens.  This  accords  with  the  fact  that  the  speculative 
element  is  almost  wholly  wanting,  and  that  throughout  it 
is  dogmatic  in  a  way  wholly  at  variance  with  that  of  Soc¬ 
rates.  The  attitude  of  Socrates  in  the  dialogues  is  that  of 
an  inquirer  for  knowledge,  not  that  of  a  possessor:  the 
Athenian  in  the  Laws ,  who  represents  Plato’s  views,  speaks 
with  the  utmost  assurance  on  all  topics,  with  the  assumption 
that  truth  needs  no  longer  to  be  sought  for,  but  has  been 
discovered.  There  is,  indeed,  a  manifest  intolerance,  es¬ 
pecially  in  religious  matters,  which  is  in  such  marked  con¬ 
trast  with  the  usual  Platonic  attitude  that  it  has  formed  an 
important  feature  in  the  argument  against  the  Platonic 
authorship.  In  a  similar  way  there  is  a  marked  contrast 
in  the  manner  of  treatment.  The  style  is  no  longer  con¬ 
versational,  but  is  more  in  the  form  of  continuous  discourse. 
In  the  latter  half  of  the  work  the  dialogue  practically  dis¬ 
appears.  The  selections  from  the  Republic  illustrate  the 
dialectic  method  popularized,  if  not  introduced,  by  Soc¬ 
rates  ;  the  Laws  in  its  continuous,  dogmatic,  formal  dis¬ 
course  exemplifies  the  method  of  the  rhetorical  schools. 

The  relation  of  the  Laws  to  the  Republic  is  indicated  in 
paragraph  739  of  the  former.  “The  first  and  highest 
form  of  the  state,  and  of  the  government  and  of  the  law 
is  that  in  which  there  prevails  most  widely  the  ancient 
saying,  that  ‘Friends  have  all  things  in  common.’  .  .  . 
Such  a  state,  whether  inhabited  by  Gods  or  by  sons  of 


136  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Gods,  will  make  them  blessed  who  dwell  therein :  and 
therefore  to  this  we  are  to  look  for  the  pattern  of  the 
state,  and  to  cling  to  this,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  to  seek 
for  one  which  is  like  this.  The  state  which  we  now  have 
in  hand  when  created  will  be  nearest  to  immortality  and 
unity  in  the  next  degree.”  The  Republic  is  an  ideal  im¬ 
possible  of  attainment :  the  Laws  forms  the  nearest  possi¬ 
ble  approximation  to  the  ideal.  The  events  at  Athens,  and 
the  failure  of  the  attempt  at  Syracuse  to  realize  the  gov¬ 
ernment  by  philosophers,  led  Plato  to  the  radical  modifica¬ 
tion  of  the  scheme  outlined  in  the  Republic .  Elsewhere 
Plato  indicates  the  relation  of  the  two  types  of  government 
and  of  education.  The  most  perfect  state  is  that  in  which 
there  are  no  rigid  laws,  but  which  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  intelligent  despot  that  possesses  all  wisdom,  or  of  a 
class  of  such  philosophers.  In  case  such  an  ideal  is 
unrealizable,  the  next  best  government  is  one  in  which  a 
rigid  scheme  of  laws  framed  by  philosophers  is  enforced 
by  officials  who  have  no  power  to  modify  the  laws.  Such 
a  government  Plato  formulates 'in  the  Laws.  The  first 
four  books  are  merely  introductory;  the  fifth  gives  the 
outline  of  the  constitution ;  the  last  six  are  devoted  to  the 
laws  in  detail.  The  class  of  guardians  now  gives  place  to 
an  hereditary  prince,  a  commissioner  of  education,  an  elec¬ 
tive  senate,  and  a  body  of  officials  chosen  by  lot. 

As  it  calls  for  no  guardian  class,  for  which  the  whole 
scheme  of  education  must  be  shaped,  the  Laws  offers  a 
scheme  of  education  radically  different  from  that  pre¬ 
sented  in  the  Republic.  Not  only  are  poets  banished,  as 
in  the  Republic ,  but  there  is  now  no  place  for  philoso¬ 
phers,  who,  if  not  banished,  are  at  least  ignored.  Hence, 
the  phase  of  education  in  the  earlier  work  devoted  to  phi- 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  137 

losophy  is  entirely  eliminated.  Education  culminates  in 
science  and  mathematics,  but  after  the  manner  of  the 
Pythagoreans,  it  is  a  mathematics  closely  allied  to  religion. 
Arithmetic  and  geometry,  developing  the  idea  of  harmony, 
culminate  in  astronomy,  which  is  closely  allied  with  astrol¬ 
ogy.  This  astrological  religion  forms  the  basis  of  society. 
Plato  praises  the  religious  and  ethical  conditions  in  primi¬ 
tive  society,  quite  after  the  manner  of  Aristophanes ;  but 
finding  it  impossible  to  advise  a  return  to  the  gross  poly¬ 
theism  of  the  early  Greeks,  he  substitutes  for  it  a  mix¬ 
ture  of  Pythagorean  philosophy  and  Oriental  or  Egyptian 
astrology.  This  education,  no  longer  having  any  connec¬ 
tion  with  his  doctrine  of  ideas,  is  the  same  for  all.  The 
outline  of  education,  with  the  omission  of  the  higher  stage, 
is  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  Republic ,  though  animated 
throughout  by  a  different  spirit.  The  literary  element  now 
becomes  small.  It  is  most  strictly  guarded  by  the  state,  on 
the  assumption  that  social  decay  in  Athenian  society  has 
been  due  to  a  corruption  in  music  and  in  literature.  In 
detail  the  entire  scheme  more  nearly  approximates  the 
accepted  Greek  education.  It  is,  however,  a  combination  of 
selected  Athenian  and  Spartan  elements  rather  than  a  close 
imitation  of  either.  The  common  meals,  the  education  of 
both  sexes,  the  public  character  of  the  education,  its  uni¬ 
formity,  the  close  superintendence  of  private  life,  are  Spar¬ 
tan  ;  the  literary  elements,  the  philosophy  of  the  curriculum, 
the  Bacchic  choruses,  its  festive  character,  are  Athenian. 
The  strong  emphasis  on  mathematics  represents  the  Pythag¬ 
orean  influence  that  became  so  strong  in  Plato’s  later  life. 
While  in  immediate  importance  and  in  permanent  value  the 
education  of  the  Laws  cannot  compare  with  that  of  the 
Republic,  its  historic  elements  are  of  somewhat  greater  value. 


138  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 
Selections  from  the  Republic  of  Plato 

PERSONS  OF  THE  DIALOGUE 

Socrates,  who  is  the  narrator.  Cephalus. 

Glaucon.  Thrasymachus. 

Adeimantus.  Cleitophon. 

POLEMARCHUS. 

And  others  who  are  mute  auditors. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  the  house  of  Cephalus  at  the  Piraeus ;  and  the 
whole  discourse  is  narrated  the  day  after  it  actually  took  place,  to 
TiMiEUS,  Hermocrates,  Critias,  and  a  nameless  person. 


BOOK  II 


******* 


Justice  or 
the  end  of 
the  state  de¬ 
pendent 
upon 

education. 


Divisions  of 
education. 


Then  he  who  is  to  be  a  really  good  and  noble  guardian 
of  the  State  will  require  to  unite  in  himself  philosophy  and 
spirit  and  swiftness  and  strength  ? 

Undoubtedly. 

Then  we  have  found  the  desired  natures  ;  and  now  that 
we  have  found  them,  how  are  they  to  be  reared  and  edu¬ 
cated  ?  Is  this  an  enquiry  which  may  be  fairly  expected 
to  throw  light  on  thefgreater  enquiry  which  is  our  final  end  — 
How  do  justice  and  injustice  grow  up  in  States  ?  for  we  do 
not  want  to  be  tedious  and  irrelevant,  or  to  leave  out  any¬ 
thing  which  is  really  to  the  point. 

Adeimantus  thought  that  the  enquiry  would  be  of  great 
use  to  us, 

Then,  I  said,  my  dear  friend,  the  task  must  not  be  given 
up,  even  if  somewhat  long. 

Certainly  not. 

Come  then,  and  let  us  pass  a  leisure  hour  in  story  telling, 
and  our  story  shall  be  the  education  of  our  heroes. 

By  all  means. 

And  what  shall  be  their  education  ?  Can  we  find  a  better 
than  the  old-fashioned  sort  ?  —  and  this  has  two  divisions, 
gymnastic  for  the  body,  and  music  for  the  soul. 

True, 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  1 39 


Shall  we  begin  education  with  music,  and  go  on  to  gym¬ 
nastic  afterwards  ? 

By  all  means. 

And  when  you  speak  of  music,  do  you  rank  literature 
under  music  or  not  ? 

I  do. 

And  literature  may  be  either  true  or  false  ? 

Yes. 

And  the  young  are  trained  in  both  kinds,  and  in  the  false 
before  the  true  ? 

I  do  not  understand  your  meaning,  he  said. 

You  know,  I  said,  that  we  begin  by  telling  children  stories 
which,  though  not  wholly  destitute  of  truth,  are  in  the  main 
fictitious  ;  and  these  stories  are  told  them  when  they  are  not 
of  an  age  to  learn  gymnastics. 

Very  true. 

That  was  my  meaning  in  saying  that  we  must  teach  music 
before  gymnastics. 

Quite  right,  he  said. 

You  know  also  that  the  beginning  is  the  chiefest  part  of 
any  work,  especially  in  a  young  and  tender  thing ;  for  that 
is  the  time  at  which  the  character  is  being  formed  and  most 
readily  receives  the  desired  impression. 

Quite  true. 

And  shall  we  just  carelessly  allow  children  to  hear  any 
casual  tales  which  may  be  framed  by  casual  persons,  and 
to  receive  into  their  minds  notions  which  are  the  very  oppo¬ 
site  of  those  which  are  to  be  held  by  them  when  they  are 
grown  up  ? 

We  cannot. 

Then  the  first  thing  will  be  to  have  a  censorship  of  the 
writers  of  fiction,  and  let  the  censors  receive  any  tale  of  fic¬ 
tion  which  is  good,  and  reject  the  bad ;  and  we  will  desire 
mothers  and  nurses  to  tell  their  children  the  authorised  ones 
only.  Let  them  fashion  the  mind  with  these  tales,  even 
more  fondly  than  they  form  the  body  with  their  hands ; 
and  most  of  those  which  are  now  in  use  must  be  discarded. 

Of  what  tales  are  you  speaking  ?  he  said. 

You  may  find  a  model  of  the  lesser  in  the  greater,  I  said; 
for  they  are  necessarily  cast  in  the  same  mould,  and  there 
is  the  same  spirit  in  both  of  them. 


What  use 
shall  be 
made  of 
literature? 


Objections 
to  the  use  of 
the  Homeric 
poems  and 
the  early 
literature  of 
the  Greeks. 


Their  moral 

influence 

bad. 


140  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  ‘ Education 

That  may  be  very  true,  he  replied ;  but  I  do  not  as  yet 
know  what  you  would  term  the  greater. 

Those,  I  said,  which  are  narrated  by  Homer  and  Hesiod, 
and  the  rest  of  the  poets,  who  have  ever  been  the  great 
story-tellers  of  mankind. 

But  which  stories  do  you  mean,  he  said ;  and  what  fault 
do  you  find  with  them  ? 

A  fault  which  is  most  serious,  I  said  ;  the  fault  of  telling 
a  lie,  and,  what  is  more,  a  bad  lie. 

But  when  is  this  fault  committed  ? 

Whenever  an  erroneous  representation  is  made  of  the 
nature  of  gods  and  heroes,  —  like  the  drawing  of  a  limner 
which  has  not  the  shadow  of  a  likeness  to  the  truth. 

Yes,  he  said,  that  sort  of  thing  is  certainly  very  blame- 
able  ;  but  what  are  the  stories  which  you  mean  ? 

First  of  all,  I  said,  there  was  that  greatest  of  all  lies  in 
high  places,  which  the  poet  told  about  Uranus,  and  which 
was  a  bad  lie  too,  —  I  mean  what  Hesiod  says  that  Uranus 
did,  and  what  Cronus  did  to  him.  The  doings  of  Cronus, 
and  the  sufferings  which  in  turn  his  son  inflicted  upon  him, 
even  if  they  were  true,  ought  certainly  not  to  be  lightly  told 
to  young  and  simple  persons ;  if  possible,  they  had  better 
be  buried  in  silence.  But  if  there  is  an  absolute  necessity 
for  their  mention,  a  chosen  few  might  hear  them  in  a  mys¬ 
tery,  and  in  order  to  reduce  the  number  of  hearers  they 
should  sacrifice  not  a  common  (Eleusinian)  pig,  but  some 
huge  and  unprocurable  victim. 

Why,  yes,  said  he,  those  stories  are  certainly  objectionable. 

Yes,  Adeimantus,  they  are  stories  not  to  be  narrated  in 
our  State;  the  young  man  should  not  be  told  that  in  com¬ 
mitting  the  worst  of  crimes  he  is  far  from  doing  anything 
outrageous  ;  and  that  if  he  chastises  his  father  when  he 
does  wrong,  in  any  manner  that  he  likes,  he  will  only  be  fol¬ 
lowing  the  example  of  the  first  and  greatest  among  the  gods. 

I  quite  agree  with  you,  he  said ;  in  my  opinion  those 
stories  are  not  fit  to  be  repeated. 

Neither,  if  we  mean  our  future  guardians  to  regard  the 
habit  of  quarrelling  as  dishonourable,  should  anything  be 
said  of  the  wars  in  heaven,  and  of  the  plots  and  fightings 
of  the  gods  against  one  another,  which  are  quite  untrue. 
Far  be  it  from  us  to  tell  them  of  the  battles  of  the  giants, 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  14 1 

and  embroider  them  on  garments  ;  or  of  all  the  innumera¬ 
ble  other  quarrels  of  gods  and  heroes  with  their  friends 
and  relations.  If  they  would  only  believe  us  we  would 
tell  them  that  quarrelling  is  unholy,  and  that  never  up  to 
this  time  has  there  been  any  quarrel  between  citizens ; 
this  is  what  old  men  and  old  women  should  begin  by  tell¬ 
ing  children,  and  the  same  when  they  grow  up.  And  the 
poets  should  be  required  to  compose  accordingly.  But 
the  narrative  of  Hephaestus  binding  Here  his  mother,  or 
how  on  another  occasion  Zeus  sent  him  flying  for  taking 
her  part  when  she  was  being  beaten,  —  such  tales  must 
not  be  admitted  into  our  State,  whether  they  are  supposed 
to  have  an  allegorical  meaning  or  not.  For  the  young 
man  cannot  judge  what  is  allegorical  and  what  is  literal; 
anything  that  he  receives  into  his  mind  at  that  age  is  apt  to 
become  indelible  and  unalterable ;  and  therefore  the  tales 
which  they  first  hear  should  be  models  of  virtuous  thoughts. 

Theie  you  are  right,  he  replied;  that  is  quite  essential  : 
but,  then,  where  are  such  models  to  be  found  ?  and  what 
are  the  tales  in  which  they  are  contained  ?  when  that 
question  is  asked,  what  will  be  our  answer  ? 

I  said  to  him,  You  and  I,  Adeimantus,  are  not  poets  in 
what  we  are  about  just  now,  but  founders  of  a  State :  now 
the  founders  of  a  State  ought  to  know  the  general  forms 
in  which  poets  should  cast  their  tales,  and  the  limits  which 
should  be  observed  by  them,  but  actually  to  make  the 
tales  is  not  their  business. 

Very  true,  he  said  ;  but  what  are  these  forms  of  theology 
which  you  mean  ? 

Something  of  this  kind,  I  replied: — God  is  always  to 
be  represented  as  he  truly  is ;  that  is  one  form  which  is 
equally  to  be  observed  in  every  kind  of  verse,  whether 
epic,  lyric,  or  tragic. 

Right. 

And  is  he  not  truly  good  ?  and  must  he  not  be  repre¬ 
sented  as  such  ? 

Certainly. 

And  no  good  thing  is  hurtful  ? 

No,  indeed. 

And  that  which  is  not  hurtful  hurts  not  ? 

Certainly  not. 


Criticism  of 
the  charac¬ 
ter  of 
religious 
ideas 
imparted. 


142  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


And  that  which  hurts  not  does  no  evil  ? 

No. 

And  that  which  does  no  evil  is  the  cause  of  no  evil  ? 
Impossible. 

And  the  good  is  the  advantageous  ? 

Yes. 

And  the  good  is  the  cause  of  well-being  ? 

Yes. 

The  good  is  not  the  cause  of  all  things,  but  of  the  good 
only,  and  not  the  cause  of  evil  ? 

Assuredly. 

Then  God,  if  he  be  good,  is  not  the  author  of  all  things, 
as  the  many  assert,  but  he  is  the  cause  of  a  few  things 
only,  and  not  of  most  things  that  occur  to  men.  For  few 
are  the  goods  of  human  life,  and  many  are  the  evils,  and 
the  good  is  to  be  attributed  to  God  alone ;  of  the  evils  the 
cause  is  to  be  sought  elsewhere,  and  not  in  him. 

That  appears  to  me  to  be  most  true,  he  said. 

Then  we  must  not  listen  to  Homer  or  to  any  other  poet 
who  is  guilty  of  the  folly  of  saying  that  two  casks 

1  Lie  at  the  threshold  of  Zeus,  full  of  lots,  one  of  good,  the  other  of  evil 
lots,’ 

and  that  he  to  whom  Zeus  gives  a  mixture  of  the  two 
‘  Sometimes  meets  with  evil  fortune,  at  other  times  with  good  ;  ’ 
but  that  he  to  whom  is  given  the  cup  of  unmingled  ill 
‘  Him  wild  hunger  drives  over  the  divine  earth.’ 

And  again :  — 

‘Zeus,  who  is  the  dispenser  of  good  and  evil  to  us.’ 

And  if  any  one  asserts  that  the  violation  of  oaths  and 
treaties  of  which  Pandarus  was  the  real  author,  was 
brought  about  by  Athene  and  Zeus,  or  that  the  strife  and 
conflict  of  the  gods  was  instigated  by  Themis  and  Zeus, 
he  shall  not  have  our  approval ;  neither  will  we  allow  our 
young  men  to  hear  the  words  of  ZEschylus,  that 

‘God  plants  guilt  among  men  when  he  desires  utterly  to  destroy  a 
house.’ 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  143 

And  if  a  poet  writes  of  the  sufferings  of  Niobe,  which  is 
the  subject  of  the  tragedy  in  which  these  iambic  verses 
occur,  or  of  the  house  of  Pelops,  or  of  the  Trojan  war,  or 
any  similar  theme,  either  we  must  not  permit  him  to  say  that 
these  are  the  works  of  God,  or  if  they  are  of  God,  he  must 
devise  some  explanation  of  them  such  as  we  are  seeking  • 
he  must  say  that  God  did  what  was  just  and  right,  and 
they  were  the  better  for  being  punished  ;  but  that  those 
who  are  punished  are  miserable,  and  that  God  is  the  author 
of  their  misery  —  the  poet  is  not  to  be  permitted  to  say  ; 
though  he  may  say  that  the  wicked  are  miserable  because 
they  lequire  to  be  punished,  and  are  benefited  by  receiving 
punishment  from  God ;  but  that  God  being  good  is  the 
author  of  evil  to  any  one,  is  to  be  strenuously  denied,  and 
not  allowed  to  be  sung  or  said  in  any  well-ordered  com¬ 
monwealth  by  old  or  young.  Such  a  fiction  is  suicidal, 
ruinous,  impious. 

I  agree  with  you,  he  replied,  and  am  ready  to  give  my 
assent  to  the  law.  J 

Let  this  then  be  one  of  the  rules  of  recitation  and  in¬ 
vention, —  that  God  is  not  the  author  of  evil,  but  of  good 
only. 

That  will  do,  he  said. 

And  what  do  you  think  of  another  principle  ?  Shall  I 
ask  you  whether  God  is  a  magician,  and  of  a  nature  to 
appear  insidiously  now  in  one  shape,  and  now  in  another 
—  sometimes  himself  changing  and  becoming  different  in 
form,  sometimes  deceiving  us  with  the  semblance  of  such 
transformations;  or  is  he  one  and  the  same  immutably 
fixed  in  his  own  proper  image  ? 

I  cannot  answer  you  without  more  thought. 

Well,  I  said;  but  if  we  suppose  a  change  in  anything, 
that  change  must  be  effected  either  by  the  thing  itself,  or 
by  some  other  thing  ? 

That  is  most  certain. 

And  things  which  are  at  their  best  are  also  least  liable 
to  be  altered  or  discomposed  ;  for  example,  when  healthiest 
and  strongest  the  human  frame  is  least  liable  to  be  affected 
by  meats,  and  drinks  and  labours,  and  the  plant  which  is  in 
the  fullest  vigour  also  suffers  least  from  heat  and  wind,  or 
other  similar  accidents. 


144  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Of  course. 

And  this  is  true  of  the  soul  as  well  as  of  the  body ;  the 
bravest  and  wisest  soul  will  be  least  confused  or  deranged 
by  any  external  influence. 

True. 

And  further,  as  I  should  suppose,  the  same  principle 
applies  to  all  works  of  art  —  vessels,  houses,  garments; 
and  that  when  well  made  and  in  good  condition,  they  are 
least  altered  by  time  and  circumstances. 

Very  true. 

Then  everything  which  is  good,  whether  made  by  art  or 
nature,  or  both,  is  liable  to  receive  the  least  change  at  the 
hands  of  others  ? 

True. 

But  surely  God  and  the  things  of  God  are  absolutely 
perfect  ? 

Of  course  they  are. 

He  is  therefore  least  likely  to  take  many  forms. 

He  is. 

But  suppose  again  that  he  changes  and  transforms  him¬ 
self  ? 

Clearly,  he  said,  that  must  be  the  case  if  he  is  changed 
at  all. 

And  will  he  then  change  himself  for  the  better,  or  for 
the  worse  ? 

If  he  change  at  all  he  must  change  for  the  worse,  for 
we  cannot  suppose  that  he  is  deficient  in  virtue  or  beauty. 

Very  true,  Adeimantus ;  but  then,  would  any  one, 
whether  God  or  man,  desire  to  change  for  the  worse  ? 

Impossible. 

Then  God  too  cannot  be  willing  to  change ;  being,  as  is 
supposed,  the  fairest  and  best  that  is  conceivable,  every 
God  remains  absolutely  and  for  ever  in  his  own  form. 

That  necessarily  follows,  he  said,  in  my  judgment. 

Then,  I  said,  my  dear  friend,  let  none  of  the  poets  tell 
us  that 

1  The  gods,  taking  the  disguise  of  strangers,  haunt  cities  in  all  sorts 
of  forms ;  ’ 

and  let  no  one  slander  Proteus  and  Thetis,  neither  let  any 
one,  either  in  tragedy  or  any  other  kind  of  poetry,  intro- 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  145 

duce  Here  disguised  in  the  likeness  of  a  priestess  asking 
an  alms 

i  For  the  life-giving  daughters  of  the  river  Inachus  ;  ’ 

let  us  have  no  more  lies  of  that  sort.  Neither  must  we 
have  mothers  under  the  influence  of  the  poets  scaring  their 
children  with  abominable  tales  of  certain  gods  who,  as  they 
say :  — 

‘  Go  about  by  night  in  the  likeness  of  strangers  from  every  land  ;  ’ 

let  them  beware  lest  they  blaspheme  against  the  gods,  and 
at  the  same  time  make  cowards  of  their  children. 

Heaven  forbid,  he  said. 

But  although  the  gods  are  themselves  unchangeable,  still 
by  witchcraft  and  deception  they  may  make  us  think  that 
they  appear  in  various  forms  ? 

Suppose  that,  he  replied. 

Well,  but  can  you  imagine  that  God  will  be  willing  to 
lie,  or  make  a  false  representation  of  himself,  whether  in 
word  or  deed  ? 

I  cannot  say,  he  replied. 

Do  you  not  know,  I  said,  that  the  true  lie,  if  I  may  use 
such  an  expression,  is  hated  of  gods  and  men  ? 

What  do  you  mean  ?  he  said. 

I  mean  this,  I  said,  —  that  no  one  will  admit  falsehood 
into  that  which  is  the  truest  and  highest  part  of  himself, 
or  about  the  truest  and  highest  matters ;  there  he  is  most 
afraid  of  a  lie  having  possession  of  him. 

Still,  he  said,  I  do  not  comprehend  you. 

The  reason  is,  I  replied,  that  you  attribute  some  grand 
meaning  to  me ;  but  I  am  only  saying  that  deception,  or 
being  deceived  or  uninformed  about  realities  in  the  high¬ 
est  faculty,  which  is  the  soul,  and  in  that  part  of  them  to 
have  and  to  hold  the  lie,  is  what  mankind  least  like ;  — 
that,  I  say,  is  what  they  utterly  detest. 

There  is  nothing  more  hateful  to  them. 

And,  as  I  was  just  now  remarking,  this  ignorance  in  the 
soul  of  him  who  is  deceived  may  be  called  the  true  lie ;  for 
the  lie  in  words  is  only  a  kind  of  imitation  and  shadowy 
image  of  a  previous  affection  of  the  soul,  not  pure  unadul¬ 
terated  falsehood.  Am  I  not  right  ? 


Condemna¬ 
tion  of  use 
of  religious 
and  legen¬ 
dary  tales  to 
frighten 
children. 


Misrepre¬ 
sentations  of 
the  idea  of 
God  by  the 
poets. 


146  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Perfectly  right. 

The  true  lie  is  hated  not  only  by  the  gods,  but  also  by 
men  ? 

Yes. 

Whereas  the  lie  in  words  is  in  certain  cases  useful  and 
not  hateful ;  in  dealing  with  enemies  —  that  would  be  an 
instance ;  or  again,  as  a  cure  or  preventive  of  the  madness 
of  those  who  are  called  your  friends ;  also  in  the  tales  of 
mythology,  of  which  we  were  just  now  speaking  —  because 
we  do  not  know  the  truth  about  ancient  traditions,  we 
make  falsehood  as  much  like  truth  as  may  be,  and  so  of 
use. 

Very  true,  he  said. 

But  can  any  of  these  reasons  apply  to  God  ?  Can  we 
suppose  that  he  is  ignorant  of  antiquity,  and  therefore  has 
recourse  to  invention  ? 

That  would  be  ridiculous,  he  said. 

Then  the  lying  poet  has  no  place  in  our  idea  of  God  ? 

I  should  say  not. 

Peradventure  again  he  may  tell  a  lie  because  he  is  afraid 
of  enemies  ? 

That  is  inconceivable. 

But  he  may  have  friends  who  are  senseless  or  mad  ? 

But  no  mad  or  senseless  person  can  be  a  friend  of  God. 

Then  no  motive  can  be  imagined  why  God  should  lie  ? 

None. 

Then  the  superhuman  and  divine  is  absolutely  incapa¬ 
ble  of  falsehood  ? 

Yes. 

Then  is  God  perfectly  simple  and  true  both  in  deed  and 
word ;  he  changes  not ;  he  deceives  not,  either  by  dream 
or  waking  vision,  by  sign  or  word. 

Your  words,  he  answered,  are  the  very  expression  of  my 
own  feelings. 

You  agree  with  me,  I  said,  that  this  is  the  second  type 
or  mould  in  which  we  are  to  cast  our  ideas  about  divine 
things.  The  Gods  are  not  magicians  who  transform  them¬ 
selves,  neither  do  they  deceive  mankind  in  word  or  deed. 

I  grant  that. 

Then,  although  we  are  lovers  of  Homer,  we  do  not  love 
the  lying  dream  which  Zeus  sends  to  Agamemnon  ;  neither 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  147 

will  we  praise  the  verses  of  ^Eschylus  in  which  Thetis 
says  that  Apollo  at  her  nuptials 

1  Was  celebrating  in  song  her  fair  progeny  whose  days  were  to  be 
long,  and  to  know  no  sickness.  And  in  conclusion  he  raised  a  note 
of  triumph  over  the  blessedness  of  my  lot,  and  cheered  my  soul.  And 
I  thought  that  the  word  of  Phoebus,  being  divine  and  full  of  prophecy, 
would  not  fail.  And  now  he  himself  who  uttered  the  strain,  he  who 
was  present  at  the  banquet,  and  who  said  this  —  he  is  the  very  god 
who  has  slain  my  son.1  J  & 

These  are  the  kind  of  sentiments  about  the  gods  which 
will  arouse  our  anger ;  and  he  who  utters  them  shall  be 
refused  a  chorus  ;  neither. shall  we  allow  them  to  enter  into 
education,  meaning,  as  we  do,  that  our  guardians,  as  far  as 
men  can  be,  should  be  true  worshippers  of  the  gods  and 
like  them. 

.  I  entirely  agree,  he  said,  in  the  propriety  of  these  prin¬ 
ciples,  and  promise  to  make  them  my  laws. 


BOOK  III 


Such  then,  I  said,  are  our  principles  of  theology  —  some 
tales  are  to  be  told,  and  others  are  not  to  be  told  to  our  dis¬ 
ciples  from  their  youth  upwards,  if  we  mean  them  to  honour 
the  gods  and  their  parents,  and  to  value  friendship  with  one 
another. 

Yes;  and  I  think  that  our  principles  are  right,  he  said. 

But  if  they  are  to  be  courageous,  must  they  not  learn, 
besides  these,  other  lessons  also,  such  as  will  have  the 
effect  of  taking  away  the  fear  of  death  ?  Can  any  man  be 
courageous  who  has  the  fear  of  death  in  him  ? 

Certainly  not,  he  said. 

And  can  he  be  fearless  of  death,  or  will  he  choose  death 
in  battle  rather  than  defeat  and  slavery,  who  believes  in  the 
reality  and  the  terror  of  the  world  below  ? 

Impossible. 

Then  we  must  assume  a  control  over  this  class  of  tales 
as  well  as  over  the  others,  and  beg  the  relaters  of  them  not 
simply  to  revile,  but  rather  to  commend  the  world  below, 
intimating  to  them  that  their  descriptions  are  untrue,  and 
will  do  no  good  to  our  future  warriors. 

That  will  be  our  duty,  he  said. 


Courage  or 
cowardice 
are  pro¬ 
moted 
through  the 
tales  of  the 
poets. 


1 48  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Then,  I  said,  we  shall  have  to  obliterate  obnoxious  pas¬ 
sages,  beginning  with  the  verse,  — 

‘  I  would  rather  be  a  serf  on  the  land  of  a  poor  portionless  man  who 
is  not  well  to  do,  than  rule  over  all  the  dead  who  have  come  to  nought.’ 

We  must  also  expunge  the  verse,  which  tells  us  how  Pluto 
feared, 

‘  Lest  the  mansions  grim  and  squalid  which  the  gods  abhor  should 
be  seen  both  of  mortals  and  immortals.’ 

And  again  :  — 

‘  O  heavens  !  verily  in  the  house  of  Hades  there  is  soul  and  ghostly 
form  but  no  mind  !  ’ 

Again  of  Tiresias  :  — 

‘To  him  alone  did  Persephone  give  mind,  that  he  should  be  wise 
even  after  death  ;  but  the  other  souls  are  flitting  shades.’ 

Again  :  — 

‘The  soul  flying  from  the  limbs  had  gone  to  Hades,  lamenting  her 
fate,  leaving  strength  and  youth.’ 

Again :  — 

‘And  the  soul,  with  shrilling  cry,  passed  like  smoke  beneath  the 
earth.’ 

And :  — 

‘  As  bats  in  hollow  of  mystic  cavern,  whenever  any  of  them  dropped 
out  of  the  string  falls  from  the  rock,  fly  shrilling  and  hold  to  one 
another,  so  did  they  with  shrilling  cry  hold  together  as  they  moved.’ 

And  we  must  beg  Homer  and  the  other  poets  not  to  be 
angry  if  we  strike  out  these  and  similar  passages,  not 
because  they  are  unpoetical,  or  unattractive  to  the  popular 
ear,  but  because  the  greater  the  charm  of  them  as  poetry, 
the  less  are  they  meet  for  the  ears  of  boys  and  men  who 
are  to  be  sons  of  freedom,  and  are  to  fear  slavery  more 
than  death. 

Undoubtedly. 

Also  we  shall  have  to  reject  all  the  terrible  and  appalling 
names  which  describe  the  world  below  —  Cocytus  and  Styx, 
ghosts  under  the  earth,  and  sapless  shades,  and  any  simi- 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  149 


lar  words  of  which  the  very  mention  causes  a  shudder  to 
pass  through  the  inmost  soul  of  him  who  hears  them.  I 
do  not  say  that  these  horrible  stories  may  not  have  a  use 
of  some  kind ;  but  there  is  a  danger  that  the  nerves  of  our 
guardians  may  become  affected  by  them. 

We  have  reason  to  fear  that,  he  said. 

Then  there  must  be  no  more  of  them. 

True. 

Another  and  a  nobler  strain  will  be  ours. 

Clearly. 

And  shall  we  proceed  to  get  rid  of  the  weepings  and 
wailings  of  famous  men  ? 

They  will  go  with  the  others. 

But  shall  we  be  right  in  getting  rid  of  them  ?  Reflect : 
our  principle  is  that  the  good  man  will  not  consider  death 
terrible  to  a  good  man. 

Yes;  that  is  our  principle. 

And  therefore  he  will  not  sorrow  for  his  departed  friend 
as  though  he  had  suffered  anything  terrible  ? 

He  will  not. 

Such  an  one,  as  we  further  maintain,  is  enough  for  him¬ 
self  and  his  own  happiness,  and  therefore  is  least  in  need 
of  other  men. 

True,  he  said. 

And  for  this  reason  the  loss  of  a  son  or  brother,  or  the 
deprivation  of  fortune,  is  to  him  of  all  men  least  terrible. 

Assuredly. 

And  therefore  he  will  be  least  likely  to  lament,  and  will 
bear  with  the  greatest  equanimity  any  misfortune  of  this 
sort  which  may  befall  him. 

Yes,  he  will  feel  such  a  misfortune  far  less  than 
another. 

Then  we  shall  be  right  in  getting  rid  of  the  lamentations 
of  famous  men,  and  making  them  over  to  women  (and  not 
even  to  women  who  are  good  for  anything),  or  to  men  of 
a  baser  sort,  that  those  who  are  being  educated  by  us  to 
be  the  defenders  of  their  country  may  scorn  to  do  the  like. 

That  will  be  very  right. 

Then  we  will  once  more  entreat  Homer  and  the  other 
poets  not  to  depict  Achilles,  who  is  the  son  of  a  goddess, 
first  lying  on  his  side,  then  on  his  back,  and  then  on  his 


Objection  to 
the  examples 
of  cowardice 
of  famous 
men, 


and  of  the 
gods. 


Poets  often 
represent  the 
gods  as  ex¬ 
amples  of 
levity  and  in¬ 
temperance. 


150  Source  Book  of  the  History .  of  Education 

face ;  then  starting  up  and  sailing  in  a  frenzy  along  the 
shores  of  the  barren  sea ;  now  taking  the  dusky  ashes  in 
both  his  hands  and  pouring  them  over  his  head,  or  bewail¬ 
ing  and  sorrowing  in  the  various  modes  which  Homer  has 
delineated.  Nor  should  he  describe  Priam  the  kinsman 
of  the  gods  as  praying  and  beseeching :  — 

‘  Rolling  in  the  dirt,  calling  each  man  loudly  by  his  name.’ 

Still  more  earnestly  will  we  beg  of  him  not  to  introduce 
the  gods  lamenting  and  saying  :  — 

i  Alas  !  my  misery  !  Alas  !  that  I  bore  the  bravest  to  my  sorrow.’ 

But  if  he  must  introduce  the  gods,  at  any  rate  let  him  not 
dare  so  completely  to  misrepresent  the  greatest  of  the 
gods,  as  to  make  him  say  — 

i  O  heavens  !  with  my  eyes  I  behold  a  dear  friend  of  mine  driven 
round  and  round  the  city,  and  my  heart  is  sorrowful.’ 

Or  again :  — 

<  Woe  is  me  that  I  am  fated  to  have  Sarpedon,  dearest  of  men  to 
me,  subdued  at  the  hands  of  Patroclus  the  son  of  Mencetius.’ 

For  if,  my  sweet  Adeimantus,  our  youth  seriously  believe 
in  such  unworthy  representations  of  the  gods,  instead  of 
laughing  at  them  as  they  ought,  hardly  will  any  of  them 
deem  that  he  himself,  being  but  a  man,  can  be  dishonored 
by  similar  actions ;  neither  will  he  rebuke  any  inclination 
which  may  arise  in  his  mind  to  say  and  do  the  like.  And 
instead  of  having  any  shame  or  self-control,  he  will  be 
always  whining  and  lamenting  on  slight  occasions. 

Yes,  he  said,  that  is  very  certain. 

Yes,  I  replied  ;  but  that  is  just  what  ought  not  to  be,  as 
the  argument  proved  to  us ;  and  we  must  abide  by  our 
conviction  until  we  find  a  better. 

True. 

Neither  ought  our  guardians  to  be  given  to  laughter. 
For  a  fit  of  laughter  which  has  been  indulged  to  excess 
almost  always  produces  a  violent  reaction. 

So  I  believe. 

Then  persons  of  worth,  even  if  only  mortal,  must  not  be 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  15 1 

represented  as  overcome  by  laughter,  and  still  less  must 
such  a  representation  of  the  gods  be  allowed. 

Still  less  of  the  gods,  as  you  say,  he  replied. 

Then  we  shall  not  suffer  such  an  expression  to  be  used 
about  the  gods  as  that  in  which  Homer  describes  how 

i  Inextinguishable  laughter  arose  among  the  blessed  gods,  when 
they  saw  Hephaestus  bustling  about  the  mansion.’ 

On  your  views,  we  must  not  admit  them. 

On  my  views,  if  you  like  to  father  them  on  me ;  that  we 
must  not  admit  them  is  certain. 

Again,  truth  should  be  highly  valued ;  if,  as  we  were 
saying,  a  lie  is  useless  to  the  gods,  and  useful  only  as  a 
medicine  to  men,  then  the  use  of  such  medicines  should  be 
restricted  to  physicians ;  private  individuals  have  no  busi¬ 
ness  with  them. 

Clearly  not,  he  said. 

Then  if  any  persons  are  to  have  the  privilege  of  lying, 
either  at  home  or  abroad,  they  will  be  the  rulers  of  the 
State ;  and  they  may  be  allowed  to  lie  for  the  public  good. 
But  nobody  else  is  to  meddle  with  anything  of  the  kind ; 
and  for  a  private  man  to  lie  in  return  to  the  rulers  is  to  be 
deemed  a  more  heinous  fault  than  for  the  patient  or  the 
pupil  of  a  gymnasium  not  to  speak  the  truth  about  his 
own  bodily  illnesses  to  the  physician  or  trainer,  or  for  a 
sailor  not  to  tell  the  captain  truly  how  matters  are  going 
on  in  the  ship. 

Most  true,  he  said. 

If,  then,  the  ruler  catches  anybody  beside  himself  lying 
in  the  State, 

‘Any  of  the  craftsmen,  whether  he  be  priest  or  physician  or  car¬ 
penter,’ 

he  will  punish  him  for  introducing  a  practice  which  is 
equally  subversive  of  ship  or  State. 

Yes,  he  said,  if  our  theory  is  carried  into  execution. 

Next,  will  not  our  youth  require  temperance? 

Certainly. 

Under  temperance,  speaking  generally,  are  included 
obedience  to  commanders  and  command  of  self  in  sensual 
pleasures. 


152  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


True. 

Then  would  you  praise  or  blame  the  injunction  of  Dio* 
mede  in  Homer, 

‘Friend,  sit  still  and  obey  my  word,’ 

and  the  verses  which  follow, 

‘  The  Greeks  marched  breathing  prowess, 

.  .  .  in  silent  awe  of  their  leaders,’ 

and  other  sentiments  of  the  same  kind  ? 

They  are  good. 

What  again  of  this  line, 

‘O  heavy  with  wine,  who  hast  the  eyes  of  a  dog  and  the  heart  of  a 
stag,’ 

and  of  the  verses  which  follow  ?  Would  say  that  in  these, 
or  any  other  impertinent  words  which  private  men  are 
supposed  to  address  to  their  rulers,  whether  in  verse  or 
prose,  are  well  or  ill  spoken  ? 

They  are  ill  spoken. 

They  may  very  possibly  afford  some  amusement,  but 
they  do  not  conduce  to  temperance.  And  therefore  they 
are  likely  to  do  harm  to  our  young  men  —  you  would  agree 
with  me  in  that  ? 

Yes. 

And  then,  again,  to  make  the  wisest  of  men  say  that 
nothing  in  his  opinion  is  more  glorious  than 

‘When  the  tables  are  full  of  bread  and  meat,  and  the  cup-bearer 
carries  round  wine  which  he  draws  from  the  bowl  and  pours  into  the 
cups ; ’ 

is  this  fit  or  improving  for  a  young  man  to  hear  ?  Or  that 
other  verse  which  affirms  that 

‘The  saddest  of  fates  is  to  die  and  meet  destiny  from  hunger?’ 

What  would  you  say  again  to  the  tale  of  Zeus,  who,  while 
other  gods  and  men  were  asleep  and  he  the  only  person 
awake,  lay  devising  plans,  but  forgot  them  all  in  a  moment 
through  his  lust,  and  was  so  completely  overcome  at  the 
sight  of  Here  that  he  would  not  even  go  into  the  hut,  but 
wanted  to  lie  with  her  on  the  ground,  declaring  that  he 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  153 

had  never  been  in  such  a  state  of  rapture  before,  even 
when  they  first  met  one  another  without  the  knowledge 
of  their  parents ;  or  that  other  tale  of  how  Hephaestus,  in 
consequence  of  a  similar  piece  of  work,  bound  Ares  and 
Aphrodite  ? 

Indeed,  he  said,  I  am  strongly  of  opinion  that  they 
ought  not  to  hear  that  sort  of  thing. 

But  any  deeds  of  endurance  which  are  done  or  told  by 
famous  men,  these  they  ought  to  see  and  hear;  as,  for 
example,  what  is  said  in  the  verses, 

‘  He  beat  his  breast,  and  thus  reproached  his  heart, 

Endure,  my  heart ;  far  worse  hast  thou  endured! 1 

Certainly,  he  said. 

In  the  next  place,  we  must  not  let  them  be  receivers  of 
gifts  or  lovers  of  money. 

Certainly  not. 

Neither  must  we  sing  to  them  of 

‘  Gifts  persuading  gods,  and  persuading  reverend  kings.’ 

Neither  is  Phoenix,  the  tutor  of  Achilles,  to  be  approved  Objection  to 
or  regarded  as  having  given  his  pupil  good  counsel  when  the  examples 
he  told  him  that  he  should  take  the  gifts  of  the  Greeks  and^nso-7 
and  assist  them ;  but  that  without  a  gift  he  should  not  be  lence  given 
reconciled  to  them.  Neither  will  we  believe  or  allow  by  the  poets. 
Achilles  himself  to  have  been  such  a  lover  of  money  that 
he  took  Agamemnon’s  gifts,  or  required  a  price  as  the 
ransom  of  the  dead. 

Undoubtedly,  he  said,  these  are  not  sentiments  which 
ought  to  be  approved. 

Loving  Homer  as  I  do,  I  hardly  like  to  say  what  I  must 
say  nevertheless,  that  in  speaking  thus  of  Achilles,  or  in 
believing  these  words  when  spoken  of  him  by  others,  there 
is  downright  impiety.  As  little  can  I  credit  the  narrative 
of  his  insolence  to  Apollo,  where  he  says :  — 

‘Thou  hast  wronged  me,  O  far-darter,  most  abominable  of  deities. 

Verily  I  would  be  even  with  thee,  if  I  had  only  the  power ;  ’ 

or  his  insubordination  to  the  river-god,  on  whose  divinity 
he  is  ready  to  lay  hands ;  or  the  dedication  to  the  dead 
Patroclus  of  his  own  hair,  which  had  been  previously  dedi- 


154  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

cated  to  the  other  river-god  Spercheius ;  or  his  dragging 
Hector  round  the  tomb  of  Patroclus,  and  his  slaughter  of 
the  captives  at  the  pyre ;  of  all  this  I  cannot  believe  that 
he  was  guilty,  any  more  than  I  can  allow  our  citizens  to 
believe  that  he,  Cheiron’s  pupil,  the  son  of  a  goddess  and 
of  Peleus  who  was  the  gentlest  of  men  and  third  in  de¬ 
scent  from  Zeus,  was  in  such  rare  perturbation  of  mind  as 
to  be  at  one  time  the  slave  of  two  seemingly  inconsistent 
passions,  meanness,  not  untainted  by  avarice,  combined 
with  overwhelming  contempt  of  gods  and  men. 

You  are  quite  right,  he  replied. 

And  let  us  equally  refuse  to  believe,  or  allow  to  be  re¬ 
peated,  the  tale  of  Theseus  son  of  Poseidon,  or  of  Peri- 
thous  son  of  Zeus,  going  forth  to  perpetrate  such  a  horrid 
rape ;  or  of  any  other  hero  or  son  of  a  god  daring  to  do 
such  impious  and  horrible  things  as  they  falsely  ascribe 
to  them  in  our  day  :  and  let  us  compel  the  poets  to  declare 
either  that  these  acts  were  not  done  by  them,  or  that  they 
were  not  the  sons  of  gods ;  —  both  in  the  same  breath  they 
shall  not  be  permitted  to  affirm.  We  will  not  have  them 
teaching  our  youth  that  the  gods  are  the  authors  of  evil, 
and  that  heroes  are  no  better  than  men  ;  undoubtedly  these 
sentiments,  as  we  were  saying,  are  neither  pious  or  true, 
for  they  are  at  variance  with  our  demonstration  that  evil 
cannot  come  from  God. 

Undoubtedly. 

And  further  they  are  likely  to  have  a  bad  effect  on 
those  who  hear  them ;  for  everybody  will  begin  to  excuse 
his  own  vices  when  he  is  convinced  that  similar  wicked¬ 
nesses  are  always  being  perpetrated  by  the  kindred  of  the 
gods, 

‘  The  relatives  of  Zeus,  whose  paternal  altar  is  in  the  heavens  and  on 
the  mount  of  Ida,’ 

and  who  have 

‘The  blood  of  deities  yet  flowing  in  their  veins.’ 

And  therefore  let  us  put  an  end  to  such  tales,  lest  they 
engender  laxity  of  morals  among  the  young. 

By  all  means,  he  replied. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  155 


I  will  beg  you  also  to  recall  what  I  began  by  saying, 
that  we  had  done  with  the  subject  and  might  proceed  to 
the  style. 

Yes,  I  remember. 

In  saying  this,  I  meant  to  imply  that  we  must  come  to 
an  understanding  about  the  mimetic  art,  —  whether  the 
poets,  in  narrating  their  stories,  are  to  be  allowed  to  imi¬ 
tate,  and  if  so,  whether  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  if  the  lat¬ 
ter,  in  what  parts ;  or  should  all  imitation  be  prohibited  ? 

You  mean,  I  suspect,  to  ask  whether  tragedy  and 
comedy  shall  be  admitted  into  our  State  ? 

Yes,  I  said;  but  there  may  be  more  than  this  in  ques¬ 
tion  :  I  really  do  not  know  as  yet,  but  whither  the  argu¬ 
ment  may  blow,  thither  we  go. 

And  go  we  will,  he  said. 

Then,  Adeimantus,  let  me  ask  you  whether  our  guardi¬ 
ans  ought  to  be  imitators,  or  whether  in  fact  this  question 
has  not  been  already  answered  by  our  previous  recognition 
of  the  principle  that  one  man  can  only  do  one  thing  well, 
and  not  many ;  and  that  if  he  attempt  many,  he  will  alto¬ 
gether  fail  of  gaining  much  reputation  in  any  ? 

Certainly. 

And  this  is  equally  true  of  imitation ;  no  one  man  can 
imitate  many  things  as  well  as  he  would  imitate  a  single 
one  ? 

He  cannot. 

Then  the  same  person  will  hardly  be  able  to  play  the 
serious  part  of  life,  and  at  the  same  time  be  an  imitator 
and  imitate  many  other  parts  as  well ;  for  even  when  two 
species  of  imitation  are  nearly  allied,  the  same  persons 
cannot  succeed  in  both,  as  is  plain  in  the  case  of  tragedy 
and  comedy  —  did  you  not  say  that  they  are  imitations  ? 

Yes,  I  did ;  and  you  are  right  in  thinking  that  the  same 
persons  cannot  succeed  in  both. 

Any  more  than  they  can  be  rhapsodists  and  actors  at 
once. 

True. 

Neither  are  actors  the  same  as  comic  and  tragic  poets; 
yet  all  these  are  imitations. 

Yes,  they  are  imitations. 

And  human  nature,  Adeimantus,  appears  to  have  been 


Objection  to 
the  form  of 
the  art  of 
the  poets, 


on  the 
ground  that 
it  is 

imitation. 


156  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Youths 
should  be 
trained  to 
imitate  the 
true  char¬ 
acter,  not 
every  phase 
of  character 
as  does  the 
poet. 


coined  into  yet  smaller  pieces,  and  to  be  as  incapable  of 
imitating  many  things  well,  as  of  performing  well  the 
actions  of  which  the  imitations  are  copies. 

Quite  true,  he  replied. 

If  then  we  would  retain  the  notion  with  which  we  began, 
that  our  guardians  are  to  be  released  from  every  other  art, 
and  to  be  the  special  artificers  of  freedom,  and  to  minister 
to  this  and  have  no  other  end,  they  ought  not  to  practise 
or  imitate  anything  else ;  and,  if  they  imitate  at  all,  they 
should  imitate  from  youth  upward  the  characters  which 
are  suitable  to  their  profession — the  temperate,  holy,  free, 
courageous,  and  the  like ;  but  they  should  not  depict  or  be 
skilful  at  imitating  any  kind  of  illiberality  or  other  base¬ 
ness,  lest  from  imitation  they  should  come  to  be  what  they 
imitate.  Did  you  never  observe  how  imitations,  beginning 
in  early  youth,  at  last  sink  into  the  constitution  and  be¬ 
come  a  second  nature  of  body,  voice,  and  mind  ? 

Yes,  certainly,  he  said. 

Then,  I  said,  we  will  not  allow  those  for  whom  we  pro¬ 
fess  a  care  and  desire  that  they  should  be  good  men,  to 
imitate  a  woman,  whether  young  or  old,  quarrelling  with 
her  husband,  or  striving  and  vaunting  against  the  gods  in 
conceit  of  her  happiness,  or  when  she  is  in  affliction,  or 
sorrow,  or  weeping ;  and  certainly  not  one  who  is  in  sick¬ 
ness,  love,  or  labour. 

Very  right,  he  said. 

Neither  must  they  represent  slaves,  male  or  female,  do¬ 
ing  the  offices  of  slaves  ? 

They  must  not. 

And  surely  not  rogues  or  cowards,  or  any  who  do  the 
reverse  of  what  we  have  prescribed  —  jesting,  scolding, 
reviling,  in  drink  or  out  of  drink ;  or  otherwise  sinning 
against  themselves  or  others  in  word  or  deed,  as  the  man¬ 
ner  of  such  is.  Neither  should  they  be  trained  to  imitate 
the  action  or  speech  of  madmen ;  for  madness,  like  vice,  is 
to  be  known  only  to  be  avoided. 

Very  true,  he  replied. 

Any  more  than  they  may  imitate  smiths  or  other  artifi¬ 
cers,  or  oarsmen,  or  boatswains,  or  the  like  ? 

Impossible,  he  said ;  how  can  they  imitate  that  with 
which  they  will  have  no  concern  at  all  ? 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  157 

And  would  you  have  them  imitate  the  neighing  of 
horses,  the  bellowing  of  bulls,  the  murmur  of  rivers  and 
roll  of  the  ocean,  thunder,  and  all  that  sort  of  thing  ? 

Nay,  he  said,  if  madness  is  forbidden,  then  neither  may 
they  copy  the  behaviour  of  madmen. 

You  mean,  I  said,  if  I  understand  you  rightly,  that  there 
is  one  sort  of  narration  which  may  be  used  or  spoken  by  a 
truly  good  man,  and  that  there  is  another  sort  which  will 
be  exclusively  adapted  to  a  man  of  another  character  and 
education. 

And  which  are  these  two  sorts  ?  he  asked. 

Suppose,  I  answered,  that  a  just  and  good  man  in  the 
course  of  narration  comes  on  some  saying  or  action  of  an¬ 
other  good  man,  —  I  should  imagine  that  he  will  like  to 
personate  him,  and  will  not  be  ashamed  of  this  sort  of 
imitation :  he  will  be  most  ready  to  play  the  part  of  the 
good  man  when  he  is  acting  firmly  and  wisely ;  in  a  less 
degree  when  his  steps  falter  owing  to  sickness  or  love,  or 
from  intoxication  or  any  other  mishap.  But  when  he 
comes  to  a  character  which  is  unworthy  of  him,  he  will  not 
make  a  study  of  that ;  he  will  disdain  his  inferiors,  and 
will  wear  their  likeness,  if  at  all,  for  a  moment  only  when 
they  are  doing  some  good;  at  other  times  he  will  be 
ashamed  to  play  a  part  which  he  has  never  practised,  nor 
will  he  like  to  fashion  and  frame  himself  after  the  baser 
models  ;  he  feels  that  the  serious  use  of  such  an  art  would 
be  beneath  him,  and  his  mind  revolts  at  it. 

That  is  what  I  should  expect,  he  replied. 

Then  he  will  adopt  a  mode  of  narration  such  as  we  have 
illustrated  out  of  Homer,  that  is  to  say,  his  style  will  be 
both  imitative  and  narrative ;  but  there  will  be  very  little 
of  the  former,  and  a  great  deal  of  the  latter.  Do  you 
agree  ? 

Certainly,  he  said ;  that  is  the  model  which  such  a 
speaker  must  necessarily  take. 

But  another  sort  of  character  will  narrate  anything,  and, 
the  worse  he  is,  the  more  unscrupulous  he  will  be  ;  nothing 
will  be  beneath  him :  moreover  he  will  be  ready  to  imitate 
anything,  not  as  a  joke,  but  in  right  good  earnest,  and  before 
a  large  audience.  As  I  was  just  now  saying,  he  will  attempt 
to  represent  the  roll  of  thunder,  the  noise  of  wind  and  hail, 


158  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Poets  to  be 
excluded 
from  the 
ideal  state. 


or  the  creaking  of  wheels,  and  pulleys,  and  the  various 
sounds  of  flutes,  pipes,  trumpets,  and  all  sorts  of  instru¬ 
ments  :  also  he  will  bark  like  a  dog,  bleat  like  a  sheep, 
and  crow  like  a  cock  ;  his  entire  art  will  consist  in  imita¬ 
tion  of  voice  and  gesture,  and  there  will  be  very  little 
narration. 

That,  he  said,  will  be  his  mode  of  speaking. 

These,  then,  are  the  two  kinds  of  style  ? 

Yes. 

And  you  would  agree  with  me  in  saying  that  one  of  them 
is  simple  and  has  but  slight  changes ;  and  if  the  harmony 
and  rhythm  are  also  chosen  for  their  simplicity,  the  result 
is  that  the  speaker,  if  he  speaks  correctly,  is  always  pretty 
much  the  same  in  style,  and  keeps  within  the  limits  of  a 
single  harmony  (for  the  changes  are  not  great),  and  also 
keeps  pretty  nearly  the  same  rhythm  ? 

That  is  quite  true,  he  said. 

Whereas  the  other  style  requires  all  sorts  of  harmonies 
and  all  sorts  of  rhythms,  if  the  music  is  to  be  expressive 
of  the  variety  and  complexity  of  the  words  ? 

That  is  also  perfectly  true,  he  replied. 

And  do  not  the  two  styles,  or  the  mixture  of  the  two, 
comprehend  all  poetry,  and  every  form  of  expression  in 
words?  No  one  can  say  anything  except  in  one  or  other 
of  them  or  in  both  together. 

They  include  all,  he  said. 

And  shall  we  receive  one  or  both  of  the  two  pure  styles  ? 
or  would  you  include  the  mixed  ? 

I  should  prefer  only  to  admit  the  pure  imitator  of  virtue. 

Yes,  I  said,  Adeimantus  ;  but  the  mixed  style  is  also  very 
charming  and  indeed  the  pantomimic,  which  is  the  oppo¬ 
site  of  the  one  chosen  by  you,  is  the  most  popular  style 
with  children  and  their  instructors,  and  with  the  world  in 
general. 

I  do  not  deny  it. 

But  I  suppose  you  mean  to  say  that  such  a  style  is 
unsuitable  to  our  State,  in  which  human  nature  is  not  two¬ 
fold  or  manifold,  for  one  man  plays  one  part  only  ? 

Yes;  quite  unsuitable. 

And  this  is  the  reason  why  in  our  State,  and  in  our 
State  only,  we  shall  find  a  shoemaker  to  be  a  shoemaker 


Educational  Theory :  P hilosophical  View  159 

and  not  a  pilot  also,  and  a  husbandman  to  be  a  husband¬ 
man  and  not  a  dicast  also,  and  a  soldier  a  soldier  and  not 
a  trader  also,  and  the  same  of  all  the  other  citizens  ? 

True,  he  said. 

And  therefore  when  any  one  of  these  clever  multiform 
gentlemen,  who  can  imitate  anything,  comes  to  us  and 
makes  a  proposal  to  exhibit  himself  and  his  poetry,  we 
will  fall  down  and  worship  him  as  a  sweet  and  holy  and 
wonderful  being ;  but  we  must  also  inform  him  that  there 
is  no  place  for  such  as  he  is  in  our  State,  —  the  law  will 
not  allow  them.  And  so  when  we  have  anointed  him  with 

rn^jr  u’*  anC^  Se^  a  &arland  of  wool  upon  his  head,  we  shall 
send  him  away  to  another  city.  For  we  mean  to  employ 
or  our  souls  .  health  the  rougher  and  severer  poet  or  story- 

•lir*  Y*10  iohtate  the  style  of  the  virtuous  only,  and 
will  follow  those  models  which  we  prescribed  at  first  when 
we  began  the  education  of  our  soldiers. 

That,  he  said,  we  certainly  will,  if  we  have  the  power. 
Then  now,  my  friend,  I  said,  that  part  of  music  or  liter¬ 
ary  education  which  relates  to  the  story  or  myth  may  be 
considered  to  be  finished  ;  for  the  matter  and  manner  have 
both  been  discussed. 

I  think  so  too,  he  said. 

Next  in  order  will  follow  melody  and  song. 

That  is  plain. 

Every  one  can  see  what  we  ought  to  say  about  them,  if 
we  are  to  be  consistent  with  ourselves. 

I  fear,  said  Glaucon,  laughing,  that  the  word  ‘every 
one  ’  hardly  includes  me,  for  I  cannot  at  the  moment  say 
though  I  may  guess. 

At  any  rate  you  can  tell  that  a  song  or  ode  has  three 

parts  the  words,  the  melody,  and  the  rhythm  ; _ that 

degree  of  knowledge  I  may  presuppose  ? 

Yes,  he  said ;  so  much  as  that  you  may. 

And  as  for  the  words,  there  will  be  no  difference  between 
words  which  are  and  which  are  not  set  to  music ;  both  will 

conform  to  the  same  laws,  and  these  have  been  already 
determined  by  us  ?  J 

Yes. 

Also  the  melody  and  rhythm  will  go  with  the  subject  ? 
Certainly.  J 


Melody  and 
song  from 
the  remain¬ 
der  of  music 


i6o  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


These  to 
conform  to 
the  same 
rules  as 
literature. 


And  we  were  saying,  as  you  may  remember,  in  speaking 
the  words,  that  we  had  no  need  of  lamentation  and  strains  of 
of  sorrow  ? 

True. 

And  which  are  the  harmonies  expressive  of  sorrow  ?  As 
you  are  a  musician,  I  wish  that  you  would  tell  me. 

The  harmonies  which  you  mean  are  the  mixed  or  tenor 
Lydian,  and  the  full-toned  or  bass  Lydian,  and  others 
which  are  like  them. 

These  then,  I  said,  must  be  banished ;  even  to  women 
of  virtue  and  character  they  are  of  no  use,  and  much  less 
to  men. 

Certainly. 

In  the  next  place,  drunkenness  and  softness  and  indolence 
are  utterly  at  variance  with  the  character  of  our  guardians. 

Of  course. 

Then  I  must  ask  you  again,  which  are  the  soft  or  drink¬ 
ing  harmonies  ? 

The  Ionian,  he  replied,  and  the  Lydian  ;  they  are  termed 
*  solute.’ 

Well,  and  are  these  of  any  military  use  ? 

Quite  the  reverse,  he  replied  ;  but  then  the  Dorian  and 
the  Phrygian  appear  to  be  the  only  ones  which  remain. 

I  answered :  Of  the  harmonies  I  know  nothing,  but  I 
want  to  have  one  warlike,  which  will  sound  the  word  or 
note  which  a  brave  man  utters  in  the  hour  of  danger  and 
stern  resolve,  or  when  his  cause  is  failing,  and  he  is  going 
to  wounds  or  death  or  is  overtaken  by  some  other  evil,  and 
at  every  such  crisis  meets  fortune  with  calmness  and  endur¬ 
ance  ;  and  another  to  be  used  by  him  in  times  of  peace  and 
freedom  of  action,  when  there  is  no  pressure  of  necessity, 
and  he  is  seeking  to  persuade  God  by  prayer,  or  man  by 
instruction  and  advice ;  or  on  the  other  hand,  which 
expresses  his  willingness  to  listen  to  persuasion  or  entreaty 
or  advice,  and  which  represents  him  when  he  has  accom¬ 
plished  his  aim,  not  carried  away  by  success,  but  acting 
moderately  and  wisely,  and  acquiescing  in  the  event. 
These  two  harmonies  I  ask  you  to  leave ;  the  strain  of 
necessity  and  the  strain  of  freedom,  the  strain  of  the 
unfortunate  and  the  strain  of  the  fortunate,  the  strain  of 
courage,  and  the  strain  of  temperance ;  these,  I  say,  leave. 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  161 

And  these,  he  replied,  are  the  very  ones  of  which  I  was 
speaking. 

Then,  I  said,  if  only  the  Dorian  and  Phrygian  harmo¬ 
nies  are  used  in  our  songs  and  melodies,  we  shall  not  want 
multiplicity  of  notes  or  a  panharmonic  scale  ? 

I  suppose  not. 

Then  we  shall  not  maintain  the  artificers  of  lyres  with 
three  corners  and  complex  scales,  or  of  any  other  many¬ 
stringed,  curiously-harmonised  instruments  ? 

Certainly  not. 

But  what  do  you  say  to  flute-makers  and  flute-players  ? 

Would  you  admit  them  when  you  reflect  that  in  this  com¬ 
posite  use  of  harmony  the  flute  is  worse  than  all  the  stringed 
instruments  put  together,  for  even  the  panharmonic  music 
is  only  an  imitation  of  the  flute  ? 

Clearly  not. 

There  remain  then  only  the  lyre  and  the  harp  for  use  in 
the  city,  and  you  may  have  a  pipe  in  the  country. 

Yes,  certainly;  thus  far  the  argument  is  clear. 

******* 

But  shall  our  superintendence  go  no  further,  and  are  the  Similar  con- 
poets  only  to  be  required  by  us  to  express  the  image  of  J)rt<J11eovaerrtists 
the  good  in  their  works  as  the  condition  of  producing  in  £y  Estate, 
our  State?  Or  is  the  same  control  to  be  exercised  over 
other  artists,  and  are  they  also  to  be  prohibited  from  exhib¬ 
iting  the  opposite  forms  of  vice  and  intemperance  and 
meanness  and  indecency  in  sculpture  and  building  and 
the  other  creative  arts ;  and  is  he  who  does  not  conform  to 
this  rule  of  ours  to  be  prevented  from  practising  his  art  in 
our  State,  lest  the  taste  of  our  citizens  be  corrupted  by 
him  ?  We  would  not  have  our  guardians  grow  up  amid 
images  of  moral  deformity,  as  in  some  noxious  pasture, 
and  there  browse  and  feed  upon  many  a  baneful  herb  and 
flower  day  by  day,  little  by  little,  until  they  silently  gather 
a  festering  mass  of  corruption  in  their  own  soul.  Let  our 
artists  rather  be  those  who  are  gifted  to  discern  the  true 
nature  of  beauty  and  grace ;  then  will  our  youth  dwell  in 
the  land  of  health,  amid  fair  sights  and  sounds ;  and 
beauty,  the  effluence  of  fair  works,  will  visit  the  eye  and 
ear,  like  a  healthful  breeze  from  a  purer  region,  and  insen- 


Types  of 
music 


and  of  in¬ 
struments 
approved. 


M 


1 62  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

sibly  draw  the  soul  even  in  childhood  into  harmony  with 
the  beauty  of  reason. 

There  can  be  no  nobler  training  than  that,  he  replied. 

And  therefore,  I  said,  Glaucon,  musical  training  is  a 
more  potent  instrument  than  any  other,  because  rhythm 
and  harmony  find  their  way  into  the  secret  places  of  the 
soul,  on  which  they  mightily  fasten,  imparting  grace,  and 
making  the  soul  graceful  of  him  who  is  rightly  educated, 
or  ungraceful  of  him  who  is  ill-educated ;  and  also  because 
he  who  has  received  this  true  education  of  the  inner  being 
will  most  shrewdly  perceive  omissions  or  faults  in  art  and 
nature,  and  with  a  true  taste,  while  he  praises  and  rejoices 
over  and  receives  into  his  soul  the  good,  and  becomes 
noble  and  good,  he  will  justly  blame  and  hate  the  bad, 
now  in  the  days  of  his  youth,  even  before  he  is  able  to 
know  the  reason  why ;  and  when  reason  comes  he  will 
recognise  and  salute  her  as  a  friend  with  whom  his  educa¬ 
tion  has  made  him  long  familiar. 

Yes,  he  said,  I  quite  agree  with  you  in  thinking  that  on 
these  grounds  education  should  be  in  music. 

Just  as  in  learning  to  read,  I  said,  we  want  to  know  the 
various  letters  in  all  their  recurring  sizes  and  combinations  ; 
not  slighting  them  as  unimportant  whether  they  be  large 
or  small,  but  everywhere  eager  to  make  them  out ;  and 
not  thinking  ourselves  perfect  in  the  art  until  we  recognise 
them  wherever  they  are  found  : 

True  — 

Or,  as  we  recognise  the  reflection  of  letters  in  the  water, 
or  in  a  mirror,  only  when  we  know  the  letters  themselves ; 
the  same  art  giving  us  the  knowledge  of  both  : 

Exactly  — 

Even  so,  as  I  maintain,  neither  we  nor  our  guardians, 
whom  we  have  to  educate,  can  ever  become  musical  until 
we  and  they  know  the  essential  forms  of  temperance,  cour¬ 
age,  liberality,  magnificence,  and  their  kindred,  as  well  as 
the  contrary  forms,  in  all  their  combinations,  and  can  recog¬ 
nise  them  and  their  images  wherever  they  are  found,  not 
slighting  them  either  in  small  things  or  great,  but  believing 
them  all  to  be  within  the  sphere  of  one  art  and  study. 

Most  assuredly. 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  163 


After  music  comes  gymnastic,  in  which  our  youth  are 
next  to  be  trained. 

Certainly. 

And  gymnastic  as  well  as  music  should  receive  careful 
attention  in  childhood,  and  continue  through  life.  Now 
my  belief  is,  —  and  this  is  a  matter  upon  which  I  should 
like  to  have  your  opinion,  but  my  own  belief  is,  —  not  that 
the  good  body  improves  the  soul,  but  that  the  good  soul 
improves  the  body.  What  do  you  say  ? 

Yes,  I  agree. 

Then,  if  we  have  educated  the  mind,  the  minuter  care 
of  the  body  may  properly  be  committed  to  the  mind,  and 
we  need  only  describe  the  outlines  of  the  subject  for 
brevity’s  sake. 

Very  good. 

That  they  must  abstain  from  intoxication  has  been 
already  remarked  by  us;  for  of  all  persons  a  guardian 
should  be  the  last  to  get  drunk  and  not  know  where  in  the 
world  he  is. 

Yes,  he  said ;  that  a  guardian  should  require  another  to 
guard  him  is  ridiculous  indeed. 

But  next,  what  shall  we  say  of  their  food ;  for  the  men 
are  athletes  in  the  great  contest  of  all  —  are  they  not  ? 

Yes,  he  said. 

And  will  the  usual  gymnastic  exercises  be  suited  to  them? 

I  cannot  say. 

I  am  afraid,  I  said,  that  such  exercise  is  but  a  sleepy 
sort  of  thing,  and  rather  perilous  to  health.  Do  you  not 
observe  that  athletes  sleep  away  their  lives,  and  are  liable 
to  most  dangerous  illnesses  if  they  depart,  in  ever  so  slight 
a  degree,  from  their  customary  regimen  ? 

Yes,  I  do. 

Then,  I  said,  a  finer  sort  of  training  will  be  required  for 
our  warrior  athletes,  who  are  to  be  like  wakeful  dogs,  and 
to  see  and  hear  with  the  utmost  keenness;  in  the  many 
changes  of  water  and  also  of  food,  of  summer  heat  and 
winter  cold,  which  they  will  have  to  endure,  they  must  not 
be  liable  to  break  down  in  health. 

That  is  quite  my  view,  he  said. 

The  really  excellent  gymnastic  is  twin  sister  of  that  simple 
music  which  we  were  just  now  describing. 


Gymnastic, 
the  second 
part  of 
education. 


The  mind 
educated  by 
music  may 
direct  gym¬ 
nastic,  the 
education  of 
the  body. 


Gymnastic 
should  be  of 
a  military 
type. 


164  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Examination 
of  the  theory 
that  the 
youth  should 
experience 
evil  in  order 
to  judge  of 
it. 


How  so  ? 

Why,  I  conceive  that  there  is  a  gymnastic  also  which  is 
simple  and  good ;  and  that  such  ought  to  be  the  military 
gymnastic. 

******* 

All  that,  Socrates,  is  excellent ;  but  I  should  like  to  put 
a  question  to  you.  Ought  there  not  to  be  good  physicians 
in  a  State,  and  are  not  the  best  those  who  have  treated  the 
greatest  number  of  constitutions  good  and  bad,  just  as  good 
judges  are  those  who  are  acquainted  with  all  sorts  of  moral 
natures  ? 

Yes,  I  said,  I  quite  agree  about  the  necessity  of  having 
good  judges  and  good  physicians.  But  do  you  know  whom 
I  think  good  ? 

Will  you  inform  me  ? 

Yes,  if  I  can.  Let  me  however  note  that  in  the  same 
question  you  join  two  things  which  are  not  the  same. 

How  so  ?  he  asked. 

Why,  I  said,  you  join  physicians  and  judges.  Now  skil¬ 
ful  physicians  are  those  who,  from  their  youth  upwards, 
have  combined  with  the  knowledge  of  their  art  the  greatest 
experience  of  disease ;  they  had  better  not  be  robust  in 
health,  and  should  have  had  all  manner  of  diseases  in  their 
own  persons.  For  the  body,  as  I  conceive,  is  not  the  in¬ 
strument  with  which  they  cure  the  body ;  in  that  case  we 
would  not  allow  them  ever  to  be  sickly ;  but  they  cure  the 
body  with  the  mind,  and  the  mind  which  is  or  has  become 
sick  can  cure  nothing. 

That  is  very  true,  he  said. 

But  with  the  judge  the  case  is  different;  he  governs 
mind  by  mind,  and  he  ought  not  therefore  to  have  been 
reared  among  vicious  minds,  and  to  have  associated  with 
them  from  youth  upwards,  in  order  that,  having  gone 
through  the  whole  calendar  of  crime,  he  may  quickly  infer 
the  crimes  of  others  like  their  diseases  from  the  knowledge 
of  himself ;  but  the  honourable  mind  which  is  to  form  a 
healthy  judgment  ought  rather  to  have  had  no  experience 
or  contamination  of  evil  habits  when  young.  And  this  is 
the  reason  why  in  youth  good  men  often  appear  to  be 
simple,  and  are  easily  practised  upon  by  the  evil,  because 
they  have  no  examples  of  what  evil  is  in  their  own  souls. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  165 

Yes,  he  said,  that  very  often  happens  with  them. 

Therefore,  I  said,  the  judge  should  not  be  young;  he 
should  have  learned  to  know  evil,  not  from  his  own  soul, 
but  from  late  and  long  observation  of  the  nature  of  evil  in 
others :  knowledge,  and  not  his  own  experience,  should  be 
his  guide. 

Yes,  he  said,  that  is  the  ideal  of  a  judge. 

Yes,  I  replied,  and  he  will  be  a  good  man  (which  is  my 
answer  to  your  question) ;  for  he  is  good  whose  soul  is 
good.  Whereas  your  cunning  and  suspicious  character, 
who  has  committed  many  crimes,  and  fancies  himself  to 
be  a  master  in  wickedness,  when  he  is  among  men  who  are 
like  himself,  is  wonderful  in  his  precautions  against  others, 
because  he  judges  of  them  by  himself:  but  when  he  gets 
into  the  company  of  men  of  virtue,  who  have  the  experi¬ 
ence  of  age,  he  appears  to  be  a  fool  again,  owing  to  his 
unseasonable  suspicion  ;  he  cannot  recognise  an  honest 
man,  because  he  has  nothing  in  himself  which  will  tell 
him  what  an  honest  man  is  like ;  at  the  same  time,  as  the 
bad  are  more  numerous  than  the  good,  and  he  meets  with 
them  oftener,  he  thinks  himself,  and  others  think  him, 
rather  wise  than  foolish. 

Most  true,  he  said. 

Then  the  good  and  wise  judge  whom  we  are  seeking  is 
not  this  man  ;  the  other  is  better  suited  to  us ;  for  vice  can¬ 
not  know  virtue,  but  a  virtuous  nature,  educated  by  time, 
will  acquire  a  knowledge  both  of  virtue  and  vice :  the 
virtuous,  and  not  the  vicious  man  has  wisdom — in  my 
opinion. 

And  in  mine  also. 

This  is  the  sort  of  medicine,  and  this  is  the  sort  of  law, 
which  you  will  sanction  in  your  state.  They  will  minister 
to  better  natures,  giving  health  both  of  soul  and  of  body ; 
but  the  bad  nature  they  will  in  the  case  of  the  body  leave 
to  die,  and  the  diseased  and  incurable  soul  they  will  put  to 
death  themselves. 

That  is  clearly  best  both  for  them  and  for  the  State. 

And  thus  our  youth,  having  been  educated  only  in  that 
simple  music  which  infuses  temperance,  will  be  reluctant 
to  go  to  law. 

Clearly. 


Such 

knowledge 
should  be 
gained  by 
observing 
the  nature 
and  results 
of  evil  in 
others. 


Only  the 
virtuous  man 
can  have 
wisdom. 


Both  music 
and  gym¬ 
nastic  have 
this  wisdom 
for  their 
end. 


1 66  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

And  in  the  same  way  simple  gymnastic  will  incline  him 
to  have  as  little  as  possible  to  do  with  medicine. 

That  I  quite  believe. 

The  very  exercises  and  toils  which  he  undergoes  are  in¬ 
tended  to  stimulate  the  spirited  elements  of  his  nature,  and 
not  to  increase  his  strength ;  he  will  not,  like  common  ath¬ 
letes,  use  exercise  and  regimen  to  develope  his  muscles. 

Very  right,  he  said. 

Neither  are  the  two  arts  of  music  and  gymnastic  really 
designed,  the  one  for  the  training  of  the  soul,  the  other  for 
the  training  of  the  body. 

But  what  is  the  real  object  ? 

I  believe,  I  said,  that  the  teachers  of  both  have  in  view 
chiefly  the  improvement  of  the  soul. 

How  can  that  be  ?  he  asked. 

Did  you  never  observe,  I  said,  the  effect  on  the  mind  of 
exclusive  devotion  to  gymnastic,  or  the  opposite  effect  of 
an  exclusive  devotion  to  music  ? 

In  what  way  shown  ?  he  said. 

In  producing  a  temper  of  hardness  and  ferocity,  or  again 
of  softness  and  effeminacy,  I  replied. 

Yes,  he  said,  I  am  quite  aware  that  your  mere  athlete 
becomes  too  much  of  a  savage,  and  that  the  mere  musi¬ 
cian  is  melted  and  softened  beyond  what  is  good  for  him. 

Yet  surely,  I  said,  the  fierce  quality  gives  spirit,  and,  if 
educated  rightly,  will  be  valiant,  but,  if  exaggerated,  is 
likely  to  become  hard  and  brutal. 

That  I  quite  think. 

The  philosopher  will  have  the  quality  of  gentleness.  And 
this,  when  too  much  indulged,  will  turn  to  softness,  but,  if 
educated  rightly,  will  be  gentle  and  modest. 

True. 

Whereas  in  our  judgment  the  guardians  ought  to  have 
both  these  qualities  ? 

Certainly  they  ought. 

The  qualities  should  be  harmonized? 

Beyond  question. 

And  the  harmonious  soul  is  both  temperate  and  valiant? 

Yes. 

And  the  inharmonious  is  cowardly  and  boorish  ? 

Very  true. 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  167 


And,  when  a  man  allows  music  to  play  and  pour  over 
his  soul  through  the  funnel  of  his  ears  those  sweet  and 
soft  and  melancholy  airs  of  which  we  were  just  now  speak¬ 
ing,  and  his  whole  life  is  passed  in  warbling  and  the  delights 
of  song ;  in  the  first  stage  of  the  process  the  passion  or 
spirit  which  is  in  him  is  tempered  like  iron,  and  made  use¬ 
ful,  instead  of  brittle  and  useless.  But,  if  he  carries  on  the 
softening  process,  in  the  next  stage  he  begins  to  melt  and 
waste,  until  he  has  wasted  away  his  spirit  and  cut  out  the 
sinews  of  his  soul ;  and  he  makes  a  feeble  warrior. 

Very  true. 

If  the  element  of  spirit  is  naturally  weak  in  him  this  is 
soon  accomplished,  but  if  he  have  a  good  deal,  then  the 
power  of  music  weakening  the  spirit  renders  him  excitable  ; 
—  he  soon  flames  up,  and  is  speedily  extinguished  ;  instead 
of  having  spirit  he  becomes  irritable  and  violent  and  very 
discontented. 

Exactly. 

And  so  in  gymnastics,  if  a  man  takes  violent  exercise 
and  is  a  great  feeder,  and  the  reverse  of  a  great  student 
of  music  and  philosophy,  at  first  the  high  condition  of  his 
body  fills  him  with  pride  and  spirit,  and  he  becomes  twice 
the  man  that  he  was. 

Certainly. 

But  if  he  do  nothing  else,  and  never  cultivates  the  Muses, 
even  that  intelligence  which  there  may  be  in  him,  having 
no  taste  of  any  sort  of  learning  or  enquiry  or  thought  or 
music,  grows  feeble  and  dull  and  blind,  because  never 
roused  or  sustained,  and  because  the  senses  are  not  purged 
of  their  mists. 

True,  he  said. 

And  he  ends  by  becoming  a  hater  of  philosophy,  uncivil¬ 
ized,  never  using  weapon  of  persuasion,  —  he  is  like  a  wild 
beast,  all  violence  and  fierceness,  and  knows  no  other  way 
of  dealing  ;  and  he  lives  in  all  ignorance  and  evil  conditions, 
and  has  no  sense  of  propriety  and  grace. 

That  is  quite  true,  he  said. 

And  as  there  are  two  principles  of  human  nature,  one 
the  spirited  and  the  other  the  philosophical,  some  God,  as 
I  should  say,  has  given  mankind  two  arts  answering  to 
them  (and  only  indirectly  to  the  soul  and  body),  in  order 


Only  such 
music  and 
exercise  as 
have  a 
temperate 
effect  to  be 
used. 


1 68  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Further 
details  of 
education 
follow  the 
same 

principles. 


Supreme 
importance 
of  education. 


that  these  two  principles  may  be  duly  attuned  and  har¬ 
monised  with  one  another. 

That  I  am  disposed  to  believe. 

And  he  who  mingles  music  with  gymnastic  in  the  fair¬ 
est  proportions,  and  best  attempers  them  to  the  soul,  may 
be  called  the  true  musician  and  harmonist  in  a  far  higher 
sense  than  the  tuner  of  the  strings. 

I  dare  say,  Socrates. 

And  such  a  presiding  genius  will  be  always  required  in 
our  State  if  the  government  is  to  last. 

Yes,  he  will  be  absolutely  necessary. 

Such,  then,  are  our  principles  of  nurture  and  education. 
There  would  be  no  use  in  going  into  further  details  about 
their  dances,  their  hunting  or  chasing  with  dogs,  their 
gymnastic  and  equestrian  contests;  for  these  all  follow 
the  general  principle,  and  having  found  that,  we  shall 
have  no  difficulty  in  discovering  them. 

******* 


BOOK  IV 

******* 

These  things,  my  good  Adeimantus,  are  not,  as  might  be 
supposed,  a  number  of  great  principles,  but  trifles  all,  if 
care  be  taken,  as  the  saying  is,  of  the  one  great  thing,  — 
a  thing,  however,  which  I  would  rather  call  not  great,  but 
enough  for  our  purpose. 

What  may  that  be  ?  he  asked. 

Education,  I  said,  and  nurture.  For  if  our  citizens  are 
well  educated,  and  grow  into  sensible  men,  they  will  easily 
see  their  way  through  all  these,  as  well  as  other  matters 
which  I  do  not  mention ;  such,  for  example,  as  marriage, 
the  possession  of  women  and  the  procreation  of  children, 
which  will  all  follow  the  general  principle  that  friends  have 
all  things  in  common,  as  the  proverb  says. 

That  will  be  the  best  way  of  settling  them. 

Also,  I  said,  the  State,  if  once  started  well,  goes  on  with 
accumulating  force  like  a  wheel.  For  good  nurture  and 
education  implant  good  constitutions,  and  these  good  con¬ 
stitutions  having  their  roots  in  a  good  education  improve 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  169 

more  and  more,  and  this  improvement  affects  the  breed  in 
man  as  in  other  animals. 

True,  he  said. 

Then  to  sum  up :  This  is  the  point  to  which,  above  all, 
the  attention  of  our  rulers  should  be  directed,  —  that  music 
and  gymnastic  be  preserved  in  their  original  form,  and  no 
innovation  made.  They  must  do  their  utmost  to  maintain 
this.  And  when  any  one  says  that  mankind  most  regard 

‘  The  song  which  is  the  newest  that  the  singers  have,’ 

they  will  be  afraid  that  he  may  be  praising,  not  new  songs, 
but  a  new  kind  of  song  ;  and  this  ought  not  to  be  praised, 
nor  is  this  to  be  regarded  as  the  meaning  of  the  poet ;  for 
any  musical  innovation  is  full  of  danger  to  the  State,  and 
ought  to  be  prevented.  So  Damon  tells  me,  and  I  can  quite 
believe  him;  —  he  says  that  when  modes  of  music  change, 
the  fundamental  laws  of  the  State  always  change  with  them. 

Yes,  said  Adeimantus ;  and  you  may  add  my  suffrage  to 
Damon’s  and  your  own. 

Then,  I  said,  our  guardians  must  lay  the  foundations  of 
their  fortress  in  music  ? 

Yes,  he  said ;  and  the  licence  of  which  you  speak  very 
easily  creeps  in. 

Yes,  I  replied,  in  the  form  of  amusement;  and  at  first 
sight  appears  harmless. 

Why,  yes,  he  said,  and  there  is  no  harm ;  were  it  not 
that  little  by  little  the  spirit  of  licence,  finding  a  home, 
penetrates  into  manners  and  customs ;  whence,  issuing 
with  greater  force,  it  invades  agreements  between  man 
and  man,  and  from  agreements  goes  on  to  laws  and  con¬ 
stitutions,  in  utter  recklessness,  and  ends,  Socrates,  by  an 
overthrow  of  all  things,  private  as  well  as  public. 

Is  that  true  ?  I  said. 

That  is  my  belief,  he  replied. 

Then,  as  I  was  saying,  our  youth  should  be  educated  in 
a  stricter  rule  from  the  first,  for  if  education  becomes  law¬ 
less,  and  the  youths  themselves  become  lawless,  they 
can  never  grow  up  into  well-conducted  and  meritorious 
citizens. 

Very  true,  he  said. 

And  the  education  must  begin  with  their  plays.  The 


No 

innovations 

permitted. 


Importance 
of  the 
earlier 
stages  of 
education. 


170  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Rigid  laws 
concerning 
education 
obviate  the 
necessity  for 
detailed 
regulations 
in  other 
respects. 


spirit  of  law  must  be  imparted  to  them  in  music,  and  the 
spirit  of  order,  attending  them  in  all  their  actions,  will  make 
them  grow ;  and  if  there  be  any  part  of  the  State  which 
has  fallen  down,  will  raise  it  up  again. 

Very  true,  he  said. 

Thus  educated,  they  will  have  no  difficulty  in  rediscover¬ 
ing  any  lesser  matters  which  have  been  neglected  by  their 
predecessors. 

What  do  you  mean  ? 

I  mean  such  things  as  these  :  —  when  the  young  are  to 
be  silent  before  their  elders ;  how  they  are  to  show  respect 
to  them  by  sitting  down  and  rising  up ;  what  honour  is 
due  to  parents  ;  what  garments  or  shoes  are  to  be  worn  ; 
the  mode  of  dressing  the  hair  ;  deportment  and  manners 
in  general.  You  would  agree  with  me? 

Yes. 

You  would  think,  as  I  do,  that  there  is  small  wisdom  in 
legislating  about  such  matters,  —  I  doubt  if  it  is  ever  done; 
nor  are  any  precise  verbal  enactments  about  them  likely  to 
be  lasting. 

Impossible. 

We  may  assume,  Adeimantus,  that  the  direction  in  which 
education  starts  a  man  will  determine  his  future  life. 
Does  not  like  always  attract  like  ? 

To  be  sure. 

Until  he  reaches  some  one  rare  and  grand  result,  which 
may  be  good,  and  may  be  the  reverse  of  good. 

That  is  not  to  be  denied. 

And  for  this  reason,  I  said,  I  shall  not  attempt  to  legis¬ 
late  further  about  them. 

Naturally  enough,  he  replied. 

Well,  and  about  the  business  of  the  agora,  and  the  ordi¬ 
nary  dealings  between  man  and  man,  or  again  about  agree¬ 
ments  with  artisans;  about  insult  and  injury,  or  the  order 
in  which  causes  are  to  be  tried,  and  the  appointment  of 
juries,  what  would  you  say  ?  there  may  be  also  questions 
about  any  impositions  and  exactions  of  market  and  harbour 
dues  which  may  be  required,  and  in  general  about  the 
regulations  of  markets,  police,  harbours,  and  the  like.  But, 
oh  heavens !  shall  we  condescend  to  legislate  on  any  of 
these  particulars  ? 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  171 

I  think,  he  said,  that  there  is  no  need  to  impose  laws 
about  them  on  good  men  ;  what  regulations  are  necessary 
they  will  find  out  soon  enough  for  themselves. 

Yes,  I  said,  my  friend,  if  God  will  only  guard  the  laws 
which  we  have  given  them. 

And  without  divine  help,  said  Adeimantus,  they  will  go 
on  forever  making  and  mending  their  laws  and  their  lives 
in  the  hope  of  attaining  perfection. 

You  would  compare  them,  I  said,  to  those  invalids  who, 
having  no  self-restraint,  will  not  leave  off  their  habits  of 
intemperance  ? 

Exactly. 

Yes,  I  said;  and  what  a  delightful  life  they  lead  !  they 
are  always  doctoring  and  increasing  and  complicating  their 
disorders,  and  always  fancying  that  they  will  be  cured  by 
some  nostrum  which  somebody  advises  them  to  try. 

That  is  often  the  case,  he  said,  with  invalids  such  as  you 
describe. 

Yes,  I  replied  ;  and  the  charming  thing  is  that  they  deem 
him  their  worst  enemy  who  tells  them  the  truth,  which  is 
simply  that,  unless  they  give  up  eating  and  drinking  and 
lusting  and  sleeping,  neither  drug  nor  cautery  nor  spell  nor 
amulet  nor  any  other  remedy  will  avail. 

Charming !  he  replied.  I  see  nothing  charming  in 
going  into  a  passion  with  a  man  who  tells  you  what  is 
good. 

These  gentlemen,  I  said,  do  not  seem  to  be  in  your  good 
graces. 

Assuredly  not. 

Nor  would  a  State  which  acts  like  them  stand  high  in 
your  estimation.  And  do  not  States  act  like  them,  which 
are  ill  governed  ?  For  they  begin  by  proclaiming  to  their 
citizens  that  no  one,  under  penalty  of  death,  shall  alter  the 
constitution  of  the  State ;  and  at  the  same  time,  he  who 
conforms  to  their  politics  and  most  sweetly  serves  them, 
who  indulges  them  and  fawns  upon  them  and  has  a  pre¬ 
sentiment  of  their  wishes,  and  is  skilful  in  gratifying  them, 
he  is  deemed  to  be  their  good  man,  and  the  wise  and 
mighty  one  who  is  to  be  held  in  honour  by  them  ? 

Yes,  he  said;  the  States  are  as  bad  as  the  men;  and  I 
am  far  from  approving  of  them. 


Religious 

sanction 

essential. 


172  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

But  do  you  not  admire,  I  said,  the  coolness  and  dexterity 
of  these  ready  ministers  of  political  corruption  ? 

Yes,  he  said,  I  do ;  but  not  of  all  of  them,  for  there  are 
some  whom  the  applause  of  the  multitude  has  deluded  into 
the  belief  that  they  are  really  statesmen,  and  they  are  not 
much  to  be  admired. 

What  do  you  mean  ?  I  said ;  you  should  have  more 
feeling  for  them.  When  a  man  cannot  measure,  and  a 
great  many  others  who  cannot  measure  declare  that  he  is 
four  cubits  high,  can  he  help  believing  what  they  say  ? 

He  cannot. 

Well,  then,  do  not  be  angry  with  them ;  for  are  they  not 
as  good  as  a  play,  trying  their  hand  at  legislation,  and 
always  fancying  that  by  reforming  they  will  make  an  end 
of  frauds  between  man  and  man,  and  the  other  rascalities 
which  I  was  mentioning,  not  knowing  that  they  are  in 
reality  cutting  away  the  heads  of  a  hydra? 

Yes,  he  said ;  that  is  just  what  they  are  doing. 

I  conceive,  I  said,  that  the  true  legislator  will  not  trouble 
himself  with  enactments  of  this  sort  in  an  ill-ordered  any 
more  than  in  a  well-ordered  State ;  for  in  the  former  they 
are  useless,  and  in  the  latter  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
inventing  them,  and  many  of  them  will  naturally  flow  out 
of  our  previous  regulations. 

What,  then,  he  said,  is  still  remaining  to  us  of  the  work 
of  legislation  ? 

Nothing  to  us,  I  replied;  but  to  Apollo,  the  god  of 
Delphi,  there  remains  the  ordering  of  the  greatest  and 
noblest  and  chiefest  of  all. 

What  is  that  ?  he  said. 

The  institution  of  temples  and  sacrifices,  and  in  general 
the  service  of  gods,  demigods,  and  heroes ;  also  the  order- 
ing  of  the  repositories  of  the  dead,  and  the  rites  which 
have  to  be  observed  in  order  to  propitiate  the  inhabitants 
of  the  world  below.  For  these  are  matters  of  which  we 
are  ignorant,  and  as  founders  of  a  city  we  should  be  unwise 
in  trusting  them  to  any  interpreter  but  our  ancestral  deity. 
He  is  the  god  who  sits  in  the  centre,  on  the  navel  of  the 
earth,  and  he  is  the  interpreter  of  religion  to  all  mankind. 

You  are  right,  and  we  will  do  as  you  propose. 

******* 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  173 


book  v 

******* 

Let  us  proceed  now  to  give  the  women  a  similar  training 
and  education,  and  see  how  far  that  accords  with  our 
design. 

What  do  you  mean  ? 

What  I  mean  may  be  put  into  the  form  of  a  question,  I 
said  :  Do  we  divide  dogs  into  hes  and  shes,  and  take  the 
masculine  gender  out  to  hunt,  or  have  them  to  keep  watch 
and  ward  over  the  flock,  while  we  leave  the  females  at 
home,  under  the  idea  that  the  bearing  and  suckling  their 
puppies  hinder  them  from  sharing  in  the  labours  of  the 
males  ? 

No,  he  said,  they  share  alike;  the  difference  between 
them  is  in  degrees  of  strength. 

But  can  you  use  different  animals  for  the  same  purpose, 
unless  they  are  bred  and  fed  in  the  same  way  ? 

You  cannot. 

Then,  if  women  are  to  have  the  same  duties  as  men,  they 
must  have  the  same  education  ? 

Yes. 

The  education  which  was  assigned  to  the  men  was  music 
and  gymnastic. 

Yes. 

Then  women  must  be  taught  music  and  gymnastic  and 
also  the  art  of  war,  which  they  must  practise  like  the  men  ? 

That  is  the  inference,  I  suppose. 

I  should  rather  expect,  I  said,  that  several  of  our  pro¬ 
posals,  if  they  are  carried  out,  being  unusual,  may  appear 
ridiculous. 

No  doubt  of  it. 

Yes,  and  the  most  ridiculous  thing  of  all  will  be  the 
sight  of  women  naked  in  the  palaestra,  exercising  with  the 
men,  especially  when  they  get  old  ;  they  certainly  will  not 
be  a  vision  of  beauty,  any  more  than  the  wrinkled  old  men 
who  have  anything  but  an  agreeable  appearance  when  they 
take  to  gymnastics — this,  however,  does  not  deter  them. 

Yes,  indeed;  he  said :  according  to  present  notions  the 
proposal  would  appear  ridiculous. 

But  then,  I  said,  as  we  have  determined  to  speak  our 


The 

education  of 
women 


to  be  similar 
to  that  of 
men. 


174  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Explanation 
of  the  diffi¬ 
culties  to  be 
encountered. 


Argument  of 
the  question 
whether 
woman  has 
the  same 
nature  as 
man, 


minds,  we  must  not  fear  the  jests  of  the  wits  which  will  be 
directed  against  this  sort  of  innovation  ;  how  they  will  talk 
of  women’s  attainments  in  music  as  well  as  in  gymnastic, 
and  above  all  about  their  wearing  armour  and  riding  upon 
horseback ! 

Very  true,  he  replied. 

Yet  having  begun  we  must  go  on  and  attack  the  diffi¬ 
culty;  at  the  same  time  begging  of  these  gentlemen  for 
once  in  their  life  to  be  serious.  Not  long  ago,  as  we  shall 
remind  them,  the  Greeks  were  of  the  opinion,  which  is  still 
generally  received  among  the  barbarians,  that  the  sight  of 
a  naked  man  was  ridiculous  and  improper ;  and  when  first 
the  Cretans  and  then  the  Lacedaemonians  introduced  naked 
exercises,  the  wits  of  that  day  might  have  ridiculed  them 
equally. 

No  doubt. 

But  when  experience  showed  that  to  let  all  things  be 
uncovered  was  far  better  than  to  cover  them  up,  and  the 
ludicrous  effect  to  the  outward  eye  vanished  before  the 
approval  of  reason,  then  the  man  was  seen  to  be  a  fool 
who  laughs  or  directs  the  shafts  of  his  ridicule  at  any 
other  sight  but  that  of  folly  and  vice,  or  seriously  inclines 
to  measure  the  beautiful  by  any  other  standard  but  that 
of  the  good. 

Very  true,  he  replied. 

First,  then,  whether  the  question  is  to  be  put  in  jest  or 
in  earnest,  let  us  ask  about  the  nature  of  woman :  Is  she 
capable  of  sharing  either  wholly  or  partially  in  the  actions 
of  men,  or  not  at  all  ?  And  is  the  art  of  war  one  of  those 
arts  in  which  she  can  or  cannot  share  ?  That  will  be  the 
best  way  of  commencing  the  enquiry,  and  will  probably  lead 
to  the  fairest  conclusion. 

That  will  be  best. 

Suppose  that  we  take  the  other  side  and  begin  by  argu¬ 
ing  against  ourselves,  and  so  the  adversary’s  position  will 
be  fairly  defended. 

Why  not  ?  he  said. 

Then  let  us  put  a  speech  into  the  mouths  of  our  oppo¬ 
nents.  They  will  say:  ‘  Socrates  and  Glaucon,  no  adversary 
need  convict  you,  for  you  yourselves,  at  the  first  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  State,  admitted  the  principle  that  every  one 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  175 

was  to  do  his  own  work  according  to  his  nature.’  And 
certainly,  if  I  am  not  mistaken  there  was  such  an  admis¬ 
sion  made  by  us.  Then  he  will  proceed  to  say  :  ‘  Is  there 
not  the  greatest  difference  between  the  natures  of  men  and 
women  ?  ’  And  we  shall  reply  :  Of  course,  there  is.  And 
he  will  ask  ‘  whether  men  and  women  ought  not  to  have 
different  tasks  imposed  upon  them,  such  as  are  agreeable 
to  their  different  natures  ?  ’  Certainly  they  ought.  ‘  Have 
you  not  then  fallen  into  a  great  inconsistency  in  saying  that 
men  and  women,  who  are  entirely  different,  ought  to  per¬ 
form  the  same  actions  ?  ’  —  What  defence  will  you  make 
for  us,  my  good  Sir,  against  any  one  who  offers  these 
objections  ? 

That  is  not  an  easy  question  to  answer  when  asked  sud¬ 
denly  ;  and  I  shall  and  I  do  beg  of  you  to  draw  out  the 
case  on  our  side. 

There,  Glaucon,  is  the  difficulty  which  made  me  unwill¬ 
ing  to  take  in  hand  any  law  about  women  and  children ; 
and  this  is  not  the  only  difficulty. 

Why  yes,  he  said,  there  is  something  of  a  difficulty. 

Yes,  I  said,  but  the  fact  is  that  when  a  man  is  out  of  his 
depth,  whether  he  has  fallen  into  a  swimming  bath  or  into 
the  ocean,  he  has  to  swim  all  the  same. 

Very  true. 

And  must  not  we  swim  and  make  for  some  haven,  in  the 
hope  that  Arion’s  dolphin  or  some  other  miraculous  help 
may  save  us  ? 

I  suppose  so,  he  said. 

Well  then,  let  us  see  if  we  can  discover  any  way  of 
escape.  Our  principle  was  that  different  natures  ought 
to  have  different  pursuits,  and  that  men’s  and  women’s 
natures  are  different.  And  now  what  are  we  saying  ?  — 
that  different  natures  ought  to  have  the  same  pursuits,  — 
this  is  the  inconsistency  which  is  charged  upon  us. 

Precisely. 

Verily,  Glaucon,  I  said,  glorious  is  the  power  of  the  art 
of  contradiction. 

Why  do  you  say  so  ? 

Because  I  think  that  many  a  man  falls  into  the  practice 
against  his  will.  When  he  thinks  that  he  is  reasoning  he  is 
really  disputing,  just  because  he  cannot  define  and  divide, 


settled  in 
the  affirma¬ 
tive. 


176  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

and  so  know  that  of  which  he  is  speaking ;  and  he  will 
pursue  a  merely  verbal  opposition  in  the  spirit  of  conten¬ 
tion  and  not  of  fair  discussion. 

Yes,  he  replied,  such  is  very  often  the  case;  but  what 
has  that  to  do  with  us  and  our  argument  ? 

A  great  deal ;  for  there  is  certainly  a  danger  of  our  get¬ 
ting  unintentionally  into  a  verbal  opposition. 

In  what  way  ? 

Why  we  valiantly  and  pugnaciously  insist  upon  the  verbal 
truth,  that  different  natures  ought  to  have  different  pur¬ 
suits,  but  we  never  considered  at  all  what  was  the  meaning 
of  sameness  or  difference  of  nature,  or  why  we  distin¬ 
guished  them  when  we  assigned  different  pursuits  to  dif¬ 
ferent  natures. 

Why,  no,  he  said,  that  was  never  considered  by  us. 

I  said :  Suppose  that  by  way  of  illustration  we  were  to 
ask  the  question  whether  there  is  not  an  opposition  in 
nature  between  bald  men  and  hairy  men ;  and  if  there  is, 
then,  if  bald  men  are  cobblers,  forbid  the  hairy  men,  or  if 
the  hairy  men  are  cobblers,  then  forbid  the  bald  men  to  be 
cobblers. 

That  would  be  a  jest,  he  said. 

Yes,  I  said,  a  jest ;  and  why  ?  because  we  never  meant 
when  we  constructed  the  State,  that  the  opposition  of 
natures  should  extend  to  every  difference,  but  only  to 
those  differences  which  affected  the  pursuit  in  which  the 
individual  is  engaged ;  we  should  have  said,  for  example, 
that  a  man  and  a  woman  when  they  both  have  the  soul  of 
a  physician  may  be  said  to  have  the  same  nature. 

True. 

Whereas  the  physician  and  the  carpenter  are  different  ? 

Certainly. 

And  if,  I  said,  the  male  and  female  sex  appear  to  differ 
in  their  fitness  for  any  art  or  pursuit,  we  should  say  that 
such  pursuit  or  art  ought  to  be  assigned  to  one  or  the  other 
of  them ;  but  if  the  difference  consists  only  in  women 
bearing  and  men  begetting  children,  this  does  not  amount 
to  a  proof  that  a  woman  differs  from  a  man  in  that  respect 
of  which  we  are  speaking  ;  and  we  shall  therefore  continue 
to  maintain  that  our  guardians  and  their  wives  ought  to 
have  the  same  pursuits. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  177 


Very  true,  he  said. 

The  next  step  will  be  to  desire  our  opponent  to  show 
how,  in  reference  to  any  of  the  pursuits  or  arts  of  citizens, 
the  nature  of  a  woman  differs  from  that  of  a  man  ? 

That  will  be  fair. 

And  perhaps  he,  like  yourself,  will  reply  that  to  give  an 
answer  on  the  instant  is  not  easy ;  a  little  reflection  is 
needed. 

Yes,  perhaps. 

Suppose  then  that  we  invite  him  to  come  along  with  us 
in  the  argument,  and  then  we  may  hope  to  show  him  that 
there  is  no  special  function  which  a  woman  has  in  the 
administration  of  the  State. 

By  all  means. 

Let  us  say  to  him :  Come  now,  and  we  will  ask  you  a 
question: — when  you  said  that  one  man  has  natural  gifts 
and  another  not,  was  this  your  meaning?  —  that  the  for¬ 
mer  will  acquire  a  thing  easily  which  the  latter  will  have  a 
difficulty  in  acquiring;  a  little  learning  will  lead  the  one  to 
discover  a  great  deal ;  whereas  the  other,  after  a  great  deal 
of  learning  and  application,  will  only  forget  what  he  has 
learned ;  or  again,  you  may  mean,  that  the  one  has  a  body 
which  is  a  good  servant  to  his  mind,  while  the  body  of  the 
other  is  at  war  with  his  mind  ;  —  would  these  be  the  sort 
of  differences  which  distinguish  the  man  of  capacity  from 
the  man  who  is  wanting  in  capacity  ? 

The  existence  of  such  differences,  he  said,  will  be  uni¬ 
versally  allowed. 

Can  you  mention  any  pursuit  of  man  in  which  the  male 
sex  has  not  all  these  qualities  in  a  far  higher  degree  than 
the  female?  Need  I  waste  time  in  speaking  of  the  art  of 
weaving,  and  the  management  of  pancakes  and  preserves, 
in  which  womankind  does  really  appear  to  be  great,  and 
in  which  for  her  to  be  beaten  is  the  most  absurd  of  all 
things  ? 

You  are  quite  right,  he  replied,  in  maintaining  the  gen¬ 
eral  inferiority  of  the  female  sex ;  at  the  same  time  many 
women  are  in  many  things  superior  to  many  men,  though, 
speaking  generally,  what  you  say  is  true. 

And  so,  I  said,  my  friend,  in  the  administration  of  a 
State  neither  a  woman  as  a  woman,  nor  a  man  as  a  man 


Women 
possess  the 
same  char¬ 
acteristics, 
only  in  an 
inferior 
degree. 


N 


1 78  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Education  of 
women  to  be 
settled  on 
the  same 
general 
principles  as 
that  of  men, 


has  any  special  function,  but  the  gifts  of  nature  are  equally 
diffused  in  both  sexes ;  all  the  pursuits  of  men  are  the 
pursuits  of  women  also,  and  in  all  of  them  a  woman  is 
only  a  weaker  man. 

Very  true. 

Then  are  we  to  impose  all  our  enactments  on  men  and 
none  of  them  on  women  ? 

That  will  never  do. 

One  woman  has  a  gift  of  healing,  another  not ;  one  is 
a  musician,  and  another  is  not  a  musician  ? 

Very  true. 

And  one  woman  has  a  turn  for  gymnastic  and  military 
exercises,  and  another  is  unwarlike  and  hates  gymnastics  ? 

Beyond  question. 

And  one  woman  is  a  philosopher,  and  another  is  an 
enemy  of  philosophy  ;  one  has  spirit,  and  another  is  with¬ 
out  spirit  ? 

That  is  also  true. 

Then  one  woman  will  have  the  temper  of  a  guardian, 
and  another  not;  for  was  not  the  selection  of  the  male 
guardians  determined  by  these  sort  of  differences  ? 

Very  true. 

Then  the  woman  has  equally  with  the  man  the  qualities 
which  make  a  guardian;  she  differs  only  in  degrees  of 
strength  ? 

Obviously. 

And  those  women  who  have  such  qualities  are  to  be 
selected  as  the  companions  and  colleagues  of  our  guar¬ 
dians,  since  they  resemble  them  in  ability  and  character  ? 

Very  true. 

And  being  of  the  same  nature  with  them,  ought  they 
not  to  have  the  same  pursuits  ? 

They  ought. 

Then,  as  we  were  saying  before,  there  is  nothing  un¬ 
natural  in  assigning  music  and  gymnastic  to  the  wives  of 
the  guardians :  to  that  point  we  come  round  again. 

Very  good. 

The  law  which  thus  enacted,  instead  of  being  an  im¬ 
possibility  or  mere  aspiration,  was  agreeable  to  nature, 
and  the  contrary  practice,  which  prevails  at  present,  is  in 
reality  a  violation  of  nature. 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  1 79 

That  appears  to  be  true. 

There  was,  first,  the  possibility,  and  secondly,  the  advan¬ 
tage  of  our  proposed  arrangement,  which  had  to  be 
considered  ? 

Yes. 

And  the  possibility  has  been  allowed  ? 

Yes. 

The  very  great  advantage  has  next  to  be  acknowledged  ? 

Clearly. 

You  will  admit  that  the  same  education  which  makes  a 
man  a  good  guardian  will  make  a  woman  a  good  guardian ; 
for  their  original  nature  is  the  same  ? 

Yes. 

I  should  like  to  ask  you  a  question  :  Would  you  say 
that  all  men  are  equal  in  excellence,  or  is  one  man  better 
than  another  ? 

The  latter. 

And  in  our  imaginary  commonwealth  which  do  you 
reckon  the  better,  the  guardians  who  have  been  brought 
up  on  our  model  system  or  the  cobblers  whose  education 
has  been  cobbling  ? 

What  a  ridiculous  question  ! 

You  have  answered  me,  I  replied.  Well,  and  may  we  not 
further  say  that  our  guardians  are  the  best  of  our  citizens  ? 

Far  the  best. 

And  will  not  their  wives  be  the  best  women  ? 

Yes,  again  I  say  the  very  best. 

And  can  there  be  anything  better  for  the  interests  of 
the  State  than  that  the  men  and  women  of  a  State  should 
be  as  good  as  possible  ? 

There  can  be  nothing  better. 

And  our  course  of  music  and  gymnastic  will  accomplish 
this  ? 

Certainly. 

Then  we  have  made  an  enactment  not  only  possible  but 
in  the  highest  degree  advantageous  to  the  State  ? 

True. 

******* 

Then  you  must  not  insist  on  my  proving  that  the  actual 
State  will  in  every  respect  coincide  with  the  ideal :  if  we 
are  only  able  to  discover  how  a  city  may  be  governed 


and  to  in¬ 
clude  the 
same 
subjects. 


The  ideal 
state  is  to  be 
produced  by 
education, 
such  as  out¬ 
lined  for  the 
guardian 
class. 


180  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

nearly  as  we  proposed,  you  will  admit  that  we  have  dis¬ 
covered  the  possibility  which  you  demand ;  and  will  be 
contented.  I  am  sure  that  I  should  be  contented  —  will 
not  you  ? 

Yes,  I  will. 

Then  let  me  next  endeavour  to  show  what  is  that  fault  in 
States  which  is  the  cause  of  their  present  maladministra¬ 
tion,  and  what  is  the  least  change  which  will  enable  a  State 
to  pass  into  the  truer  form  ;  and  let  the  change,  if  possible, 
be  of  one  thing  only,  or,  if  not,  of  two ;  at  any  rate,  let  the 
changes  be  as  few  and  slight  as  possible. 

Certainly,  he  replied. 

I  think  then,  I  said,  that  there  might  be  a  revolution  if 
there  were  just  one  change,  which  is  not  a  slight  or  easy 
though  still  a  possible  one. 

What  is  it  ?  he  said. 

Now  then,  I  said,  I  go  to  meet  that  which  I  liken  to  the 
greatest  of  waves,  yet  shall  the  word  be  spoken,  even 
though  the  overflowing  of  the  laughing  wave  shall  drown 
me  in  laughter  and  dishonour  ;  and  do  you  attend  to  me. 

Proceed. 

I  said :  Until,  then,  philosophers  are  kings,  or  the  kings 
and  princes  of  this  world  have  the  spirit  and  power  of 
philosophy,  and  political  greatness  and  wisdom  meet  in 
one,  and  those  commoner  natures  who  follow  either  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  other  are  compelled  to  stand  aside,  cities 
will  never  cease  from  ill — no,  nor  the  human  race,  as  I 
believe  —  and  then  only  will  our  State  have  a  possibility  of 
life  and  behold  the  light  of  day.  This  was  the  thought, 
my  dear  Glaucon,  which  I  was  wanting  to  utter  if  it  had 
not  seemed  too  extravagant ;  for  to  be  convinced  that  in 
no  other  state  can  there  be  private  or  public  happiness  is 
indeed  a  hard  thing. 

Socrates,  what  do  you  mean  ?  I  would  have  you  con¬ 
sider  that  the  word  which  you  have  spoken,  is  one  at  which 
numerous  persons,  and  very  respectable  persons  too,  pull¬ 
ing  off  their  coat  in  a  moment,  and  seizing  any  weapon 
that  comes  to  hand,  will  run  at  you  might  and  main,  intend¬ 
ing  to  do  heaven  knows  what ;  and  if  you  don’t  prepare  an 
answer,  and  put  yourself  in  motion,  you  will  be  ‘  pared  by 
their  fine  wits,’  and  no  mistake. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  181 

You  got  me  into  the  scrape,  I  said. 

And  I  was  quite  right;  however,  I  will  do  all  I  can  to 
get  you  out ;  but  I  can  only  give  you  wishes  and  exhorta¬ 
tions,  and  also,  perhaps,  I  may  be  able  to  fit  answers  to 
your  questions  better  than  another  —  that  is  all.  And  now, 
having  such  an  auxiliary,  you  must  do  your  best  to  show 
the  unbelievers  that  you  are  right. 

I  ought  to  try,  I  said,  since  you  offer  me  such  valuable 
assistance.  And  I  think  that,  if  there  is  to  be  a  chance  of 
our  escaping,  we  must  define  who  these  philosophers  are 
who,  as  we  say,  are  to  rule  in  the  State ;  then  we  shall  be 
able  to  defend  ourselves :  There  will  be  discovered  to  be 
some  natures  who  ought  to  rule  and  to  study  philosophy  ; 
and  others  who  are  not  born  to  be  philosophers,  and  are 
meant  to  be  followers  rather  than  leaders. 

Then  now  for  a  definition,  he  said. 

Follow  me,  I  said,  and  I  hope  that  I  may  somehow  or 
other  be  able  to  give  you  a  satisfactory  explanation. 

Proceed. 

I  dare  say  that  you  remember,  and  therefore  I  need  not 
remind  you,  that  a  lover,  if  he  is  worthy  of  the  name,  ought 
to  show  his  love,  not  to  some  one  part  of  that  which  he 
loves,  but  to  the  whole. 

I  believe  that  I  must  ask  you  to  explain,  for  I  really  do 
not  understand. 

Another,  I  replied,  might  fairly  answer  thus  ;  but  a  man 
of  pleasure  like  you  ought  to  know  that  all  who  are  in  the 
flower  of  their  youth  do  somehow  or  other  raise  a  pang  or 
emotion  in  a  lover’s  breast,  and  are  thought  by  him  to  be 
worthy  of  his  affectionate  regards.  Is  not  this  a  way  which 
you  have  with  the  fair  :  one  has  a  snub  nose,  and  you 
praise  his  pleasant  face ;  another’s  beak,  as  you  say,  has  a 
royal  look  ;  while  he  who  is  neither  snub  nor  hooked  has 
the  grace  of  regularity :  the  dark  visage  is  manly,  and  the 
fair  are  angels;  and  as  to  the  sweet  ‘honey-pale,’  as  they 
are  called,  what  is  the  very  name  but  the  invention  of  a 
lover  who  uses  these  pet  names,  and  is  not  averse  to  pale¬ 
ness  on  the  cheek  of  youth  ?  In  a  word,  there  is  no  excuse 
which  you  will  not  make,  and  nothing  which  you  will  not 
say,  in  order  to  preserve  for  your  use  every  flower  that  has 
the  bloom  of  youth. 


Character  of 
the  philoso¬ 
pher,  the 
ideal  of  this 
education. 


They  are 
lovers  of 
knowledge, 


182  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

If  you  will  make  me  an  authority  in  matters  of  love,  for 
the  sake  of  the  argument,  I  assent. 

And  what  do  you  say  of  lovers  of  wine  ?  Do  you  not 
see  them  doing  the  same  ?  They  are  glad  of  any  pretext 
of  drinking  any  wine. 

Very  good. 

And  the  same  is  true  of  ambitious  men ;  if  they  cannot 
be  generals,  they  are  willing  to  be  captains  ;  and  if  they 
cannot  be  honoured  by  really  great  and  important  persons, 
they  are  glad  to  be  honoured  by  inferior  people,  —  but 
honour  of  some  kind  they  must  have. 

Exactly. 

Once  more  let  me  ask :  Does  he  who  desires  any  class 
of  goods,  desire  the  whole  class  or  a  part  only  ? 

The  whole. 

And  may  we  not  say  of  the  philosopher  that  he  is  a 
lover,  not  of  a  part  of  wisdom  only,  but  of  the  whole  ? 

True. 

Then  he  who  dislikes  knowledge,  especially  in  youth, 
when  he  has  no  power  of  judging  what  is  good  and  what 
is  not,  such  an  one  we  maintain  not  to  be  a  philosopher  or 
a  lover  of  knowledge,  just  as  he  who  refuses  his  food  is 
not  hungry,  and  may  be  said  to  have  a  bad  appetite  and 
not  a  good  one  ? 

There  we  are  right,  he  said. 

Whereas  he  who  has  a  taste  for  every  sort  of  knowledge 
and  who  is  curious  to  learn  and  is  never  satisfied,  may  be 
justly  termed  a  philosopher?  Am  I  not  right? 

Glaucon  said  :  If  curiosity  makes  a  philosopher,  you  will 
find  many  a  strange  being  claiming  the  name.  For  all  the 
lovers  of  sights  have  a  delight  in  learning,  and  will  there¬ 
fore  have  to  be  included.  Musical  amateurs,  too,  are  a 
folk  wonderfully  out  of  place  among  philosophers,  for  they 
are  the  last  persons  in  the  world  who  would  come  to  any¬ 
thing  like  a  philosophical  discussion,  if  they  could  help, 
while  they  run  about  at  the  Dionysiac  festivals  as  if  they  had 
let  out  their  ears  to  hear  every  chorus  ;  whether  the  per¬ 
formance  is  in  town  or  country  —  that  makes  no  difference 
—  they  are  there.  Now  are  we  to  maintain  that  all  these 
and  any  who  have  similar  tastes,  as  well  as  the  professors 
of  minor  arts,  are  philosophers  ? 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  183 

Certainly  not,  I  replied,  they  are  only  an  imitation. 

He  said  :  But  who  are  the  true  philosophers  ? 

Those,  I  said,  who  are  lovers  of  the  vision  of  truth.  and  of 

That  is  also  good,  he  said  ;  but  I  should  like  to  know  truth- 
what  you  mean  ? 

To  another,  I  replied,  I  might  have  a  difficulty  in 
explaining ;  but  I  am  sure  that  you  will  admit  a  proposi¬ 
tion  which  I  am  about  to  make. 

What  proposition  ? 

That  since  beauty  is  the  opposite  of  ugliness,  they  are 
two  ? 

Certainly. 

And  inasmuch  as  they  are  two,  each  of  them  is  one  ? 

True  again. 

And  of  just  and  unjust,  good  and  evil,  and  of  every  other 
class,  the  same  remark  holds :  taken  singly,  each  of  them 
is  one ;  but  from  the  various  combinations  of  them  with 
things  and  persons  and  with  one  another,  they  are  seen  in 
various  lights  and  appear  many  ? 

Very  true. 

And  this  is  the  distinction  which  I  draw  between  the 
sight-loving,  art-loving,  busy  class  and  those  of  whom  I 
am  speaking,  and  who  are  alone  worthy  of  the  name  of 
philosophers. 

How  do  you  distinguish  them  ?  he  said. 

The  lovers  of  sounds  and  sights,  I  replied,  are,  as  I  con¬ 
ceive,  fond  of  fine  tones  and  colours  and  forms  and  all  the 
artificial  products  that  are  made  out  of  them,  but  their 
mind  is  incapable  of  seeing  or  loving  absolute  beauty. 

True,  he  replied. 

Few  are  they  who  are  able  to  attain  the  sight  of  this. 

Very  true. 

And  he  who,  having  a  sense  of  beautiful  things  has  no 
sense  of  absolute  beauty,  or  who,  if  another  lead  him  to  a 
knowledge  of  that  beauty  is  unable  to  follow  —  of  such  an 
one  I  ask,  Is  he  awake  or  in  a  dream  only  ?  Reflect :  is 
not  the  dreamer,  sleeping  or  waking,  one  who  puts  the 
resemblance  in  the  place  of  the  real  object  ? 

I  should  certainly  say  that  such  an  one  was  dreaming. 

But  take  the  case  of  the  other,  who  recognises  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  absolute  beauty  and  is  able  to  distinguish  the  idea 


184  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


He  is  the 
one  who  can 
distinguish 
the  object 
and  the  idea, 


who  pos¬ 
sesses 
knowledge 
as  opposed 
to  opinion. 


from  the  objects  which  participate  in  the  idea,  neither  put¬ 
ting  the  objects  in  the  place  of  the  idea  nor  the  idea  in  the 
place  of  the  objects  —  is  he  a  dreamer,  or  is  he  awake? 

He  is  wide  awake. 

And  may  we  not  say  that  the  mind  of  the  one  has  knowl¬ 
edge  and  that  the  mind  of  the  other  has  opinion  only  ? 

Certainly. 

But  suppose  that  the  latter  quarrels  with  us  and  disputes 
our  statement,  can  we  administer  any  soothing  cordial  or 
advice  to  him,  without  revealing  to  him  that  there  is  sad 
disorder  in  his  wits  ? 

Good  advice  is  what  he  certainly  wants,  he  replied. 

Come,  then,  and  let  us  think  of  something  to  tell  him. 
Suppose  we  begin  by  assuring  him  that  he  is  welcome  to 
any  knowledge  he  may  have,  and  that  we  are  rejoiced  at 
his  having  any.  But  we  should  like  to  ask  him  a  question  : 
Does  he  who  has  knowledge  know  something  or  nothing  ? 
(You  must  answer  for  him.) 

I  answer  that  he  knows  something. 

Something  that  is  or  is  not  ? 

Something  that  is ;  for  how  can  that  which  is  not  ever 
be  known  ? 

And  are  we  assured,  after  looking  at  the  matter  in  every 
point  of  view,  that  absolute  being  is  or  may  be  absolutely 
known,  but  that  not-being  is  utterly  unknown  and  unknow¬ 
able  ? 

Nothing  can  be  more  certain. 

Good.  But  if  there  be  anything  which  is  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  be  and  not  to  be,  that  will  have  a  place  inter¬ 
mediate  between  pure  being  and  the  absolute  negation  of 
being  ? 

Yes,  between  them. 

And,  as  knowledge  corresponded  to  being  and  ignorance 
to  not-being,  for  that  intermediate  between  being  and  not- 
being  there  has  to  be  discovered  a  corresponding  inter¬ 
mediate  between  ignorance  and  knowledge,  if  there  be  such  ? 

Certainly. 

Db  we  admit  the  existence  of  opinion  ? 

Undoubtedly. 

As  being  the  same  with  knowledge,  or  another  faculty  ? 

Another  faculty. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  185 


Then  opinion  and  knowledge  have  to  do  with  different 
kinds  of  matter  corresponding  to  this  difference  of  faculties? 

Yes. 

And  knowledge  is  relative  to  being  and  knows  being. 
But  before  I  proceed  I  will  make  a  division. 

What  division  ? 

I  will  begin  by  placing  faculties  in  a  class  by  themselves: 
they  are  powers  in  us,  and  in  all  other  things,  by  which  we 
do  as  we  do.  Sight  and  hearing,  for  example,  I  should  call 
faculties.  Have  I  clearly  explained  the  class  which  I  mean? 

Yes,  I  quite  understand. 

Then  let  me  tell  you  my  view  about  them.  I  do  not  see 
them,  and  therefore  the  distinctions  of  figure,  color,  and 
the  like,  which  enable  me  to  discern  the  differences  of  some 
things,  do  not  apply  to  them.  In  speaking  of  a  faculty  I 
think  only  of  the  end  and  the  operation ;  and  that  which 
has  the  same  end  and  the  same  operation  I  call  the  same 
faculty,  but  that  which  has  another  end  and  another  oper¬ 
ation  I  call  different.  Would  that  be  your  way  of  speaking  ? 

Yes. 

To  return.  Would  you  place  knowledge  among  faculties, 
or  in  some  other  class  ? 

Certainly  knowledge  is  a  faculty,  and  the  most  powerful 
of  all  faculties. 

And  is  opinion  also  a  faculty  ? 

Certainly,  he  said ;  for  opinion  is  that  with  which  we  are 
able  to  form  an  opinion. 

And  yet  you  were  surely  admitting  a  little  while  ago 
that  knowledge  is  not  the  same  as  opinion  ? 

Why,  yes,  said  he ;  for  how  can  any  reasonable  being 
ever  identify  that  which  is  infallible  with  that  which  errs  ? 

That  is  very  good,  I  said,  and  clearly  shows  that  we  are 
conscious  of  a  distinction  between  them  ? 

Yes. 

Then  knowledge  and  opinion  having  distinct  powers  have 
also  distinct  ends  or  subject-matters  ? 

That  is  certain. 

Being  is  the  end  or  subject-matter  of  knowledge,  and 
knowledge  is  the  knowledge  of  being  ? 

Yes. 

And  opinion  is  to  have  an  opinion  ? 


Discussion 
concerning 
the  relation 
of  knowl¬ 
edge  and 
opinion. 


1 86  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Yes. 

And  is  the  subject-matter  of  opinion  the  same  as  the 
subject-matter  of  knowledge? 

Nay,  he  replied,  that  is  already  disproven ;  if  difference 
in  faculty  implies  difference  in  the  end  or  subject-matter, 
and  opinion  and  knowledge  are  distinct  faculties,  the  sub¬ 
ject-matter  of  knowledge  cannot  be  the  same  as  the  subject- 
matter  of  opinion. 

Then  if  being  is  the  subject-matter  of  knowledge,  some¬ 
thing  else  must  be  the  subject-matter  of  opinion? 

Yes,  something  else. 

Well  then,  is  not-being  the  subject-matter  of  opinion? 
or,  rather,  how  can  there  be  an  opinion  at  all  about  not- 
being  ?  Reflect :  when  a  man  has  an  opinion,  has  he  not 
an  opinion  about  something  ?  Can  he  have  an  opinion 
which  is  an  opinion  about  nothing  ? 

Impossible. 

He  who  has  an  opinion  has  an  opinion  about  some  one 
thing  ? 

Yes. 

And  not-being  is  not  one  thing  but,  properly  speaking, 
nothing  ? 

True. 

Of  not-being,  ignorance  was  assumed  to  be  the  necessary 
correlative ;  of  being,  knowledge  ? 

True,  he  said. 

Then  opinion  is  not  concerned  either  with  being  or  with 
not-being  ? 

Not  with  either. 

And  can  therefore  neither  be  ignorance  nor  knowledge  ? 

That  seems  to  be  true. 

Then  is  opinion  to  be  sought  without  and  beyond  either 
of  them,  in  a  greater  clearness  than  knowledge,  or  in  a 
greater  darkness  than  ignorance  ? 

Neither. 

Then  I  suppose  that  opinion  appears  to  you  darker  than 
knowledge,  but  lighter  than  ignorance  ? 

Both ;  and  in  no  small  degree. 

And  also  to  be  within  and  between  them  ? 

Yes. 

Then  you  would  infer  that  opinion  is  intermediate  ? 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  187 

No  question. 

But  were  we  not  saying  before,  that  if  anything  appeared 
to  be  of  a  sort  which  is  and  is  not  at  the  same  time,  that 
sort  of  thing  would  appear  also  to  lie  in  the  interval  be¬ 
tween  pure  being  and  absolute  not-being ;  and  that  the 
corresponding  faculty  is  neither  knowledge  nor  ignorance, 
but  will  be  found  in  the  interval  between  them  ? 

True. 

And  in  that  interval  there  has  now  been  discovered  a 
thing  which  we  call  opinion  ? 

There  has. 

Then  what  remains  to  be  discovered  is  the  object  which 
partakes  equally  of  the  nature  of  being  and  not-being,  and 
cannot  rightly  be  termed  either,  pure  and  simple ;  this 
unknown  term,  when  discovered,  we  may  truly  call  the 
subject  of  opinion,  and  assign  to  each  their  due  —  to  the 
extremes  the  faculty  of  the  extreme  and  to  the  mean 
the  faculty  of  the  mean. 

True. 

This  being  premised,  I  would  ask  the  gentleman  who  is 
of  opinion  that  there  is  no  absolute  or  unchangeable  idea 
of  beauty  — in  whose  opinion  the  beautiful  is  the  diverse 
—  he,  I  say,  your  lover  of  beautiful  sights,  who  cannot 
bear  to  be  told  that  the  just  is  one,  and  the  beautiful  is 
one,  or  that  anything  is  one  —  to  him  I  would  appeal, 
saying,  Best  of  men,  of  all  these  beautiful  things  is  there 
one  which  will  not  be  found  ugly  ;  or  of  the  just,  which  will 
not  be  found  unjust ;  or  of  the  holy,  which  will  not  also 
be  unholy  ? 

No,  he  replied;  the  beautiful  will  in  some  point  of  view 
be  found  ugly ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  rest. 

And  may  not  the  many  which  are  doubles  be  also 
halves  ?  —  doubles,  that  is,  of  one  thing,  and  halves  of 
another  ? 

Yes. 

And  things  great  and  small,  heavy  and  light,  will  not 
be  denoted  by  these  any  more  than  by  the  opposite 
names  ? 

True;  both  those  and  the  opposite  names  will  always 
attach  to  all  of  them. 

And  can  any  one  of  those  many  things  which  are  called 


1 88  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Knowledge 
relates  to 
ideas  to  the 
absolute, 
while 
opinion 
relates  to 
phenomenal 
existence. 


by  particular  names  be  said  to  be  this  rather  than  not  to 
be  this  ? 

He  replied  :  They  are  like  the  punning  riddles  which 
are  asked  at  feasts  or  the  children’s  puzzle  about  the 
eunuch  aiming  at  the  bat,  with  what  he  hit  him,  as  they 
say  in  the  puzzle,  and  what  the  bat  was  sitting  upon ;  for 
these  immediate  objects  of  which  I  am  speaking  are  a 
riddle  also,  and  have  a  double  sense  :  nor  can  you  fix  them 
in  your  mind,  either  as  being  or  not-being,  or  both  or 
neither. 

Then  what  do  you  do  with  them  ?  I  said.  Can  they 
have  a  better  place  than  between  being  and  not-being  ? 
For  they  are  clearly  not  in  greater  darkness  or  negation 
than  not-being,  or  more  full  of  light  and  existence  than 
being. 

That  is  quite  true,  he  said. 

Thus  then  we  seem  to  have  discovered  that  the  many 
things  which  are  esteemed  beautiful  or  good  by  the  multi¬ 
tude,  are  tossing  about  in  some  region  which  is  half-way 
between  pure  being  and  pure  not-being  ? 

We  have. 

Yes;  and  we  had  before  agreed  that  anything  of  this 
kind  which  we  might  find  was  to  be  described  as  matter 
of  opinion,  and  not  as  matter  of  knowledge ;  being  the 
intermediate  flux  which  is  caught  and  detained  by  the 
intermediate  faculty. 

Granted. 

Then  those  who  see  the  many  beautiful,  and  who  yet 
neither  see,  nor  can  be  taught  to  see,  absolute  beauty; 
who  see  the  many  just,  and  not  absolute  justice,  and  the 
like,  —  such  persons  may  be  said  to  have  opinion  but  not 
knowledge  ? 

That  is  certain. 

But  those  who  see  the  absolute  and  eternal  and  immu¬ 
table  may  be  said  to  know,  and  not  to  have  opinion  only  ? 

Neither  can  that  be  denied. 

The  one  love  and  embrace  the  subjects  of  knowledge, 
the  other  those  of  opinion  ?  The  latter  are  the  same,  as 
I  dare  say  you  will  remember,  who  listened  to  sweet  sounds 
and  gazed  upon  fair  colours,  but  would  not  tolerate  the 
existence  of  absolute  beauty. 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  189 

Yes,  I  remember. 

Shall  we  then  be  guilty  of  any  impropriety  in  calling 
them  lovers  of  opinion  rather  than  lovers  of  wisdom,  and 
will  they  be  very  angry  with  us  for  thus  describing  them  ? 

I  shall  tell  them  that  they  ought  not  to  be  angry  at  a 
description  of  themselves  which  is  true. 

But  those  who  love  the  truth  of  each  thing  are  to  be 
called  lovers  of  wisdom  and  not  lovers  of  opinion. 

Assuredly. 

BOOK  VI 

And  thus,  Glaucon,  after  the  argument  has  gone  a  weary 
way,  the  true  and  the  false  philosophers  have  at  length 
appeared  in  view. 

I  do  not  think,  he  said,  that  the  way  could  have  been 
shortened. 

I  suppose  not,  I  said ;  and  yet  I  believe  that  we  might 
have  a  nearer  view  of  both  of  them  if  there  were  not  many 
other  questions  awaiting  us,  which  he  who  desires  to  see 
in  what  the  life  of  the  just  differs  from  that  of  the  unjust 
must  consider. 

And  what  question  is  next  in  order  ?  he  asked. 

Surely,  I  said,  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  that.  Inas¬ 
much  as  philosophers  only  are  able  to  grasp  the  eternal 
and  unchangeable,  and  those  who  wander  in  the  region  of 
the  many  and  variable  are  not  philosophers,  I  must  ask 
you  which  of  the  two  kinds  should  be  the  rulers  of  our 
State  ? 

And  how  can  we  truly  answer  that  question  ? 

Ask  yourself,  I  replied,  which  of  the  two  are  better  able 
to  guard  the  laws  and  institutions  of  our  State ;  and  let 
them  be  our  guardians. 

Very  good. 

Neither,  I  said,  can  there  be  any  question  that  the  guar¬ 
dian  who  is  to  keep  anything  should  have  eyes  rather  than 
no  eyes  ? 

There  can  be  no  question  of  that. 

And  are  not  those  who  are  truly  and  indeed  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  true  being  of  each  thing,  and  have  in 
their  souls  no  clear  pattern,  and  are  unable  as  with  a 
painter’s  eye  to  look  at  the  very  truth  and  to  that  original 


Philoso¬ 
phers  are 
the  true 
rulers  of  the 
state. 


190  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Their  quali¬ 
fications. 


For  they 
possess 
knowledge  ; 


they  are 
truthful ; 


to  repair,  and  having  perfect  vision  of  the  other  world  to 
order  the  laws  about  beauty,  goodness,  justice  in  this,  if 
not  already  ordered,  and  to  guard  and  preserve  the  order 
of  them  —  are  they  not,  I  say,  simply  blind? 

Assuredly,  he  replied,  that  is  very  much  their  condition. 

And  shall  they  be  our  guardians  when  there  are  others 
who,  besides  being  their  equals  in  experience  and  not  infe¬ 
rior  to  them  in  any  particular  of  virtue,  have  also  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  truth  ? 

There  can  be  no  reason,  he  said,  for  rejecting  those  who 
have  this  great  and  pre-eminent  quality,  if  they  do  not  fail 
in  any  other  respect. 

Suppose  then,  I  said,  that  we  determine  how  far  they 
can  unite  this  and  the  other  excellences. 

By  all  means. 

In  the  first  place,  as  we  began  by  observing,  the  nature 
of  the  philosopher  was  to  be  ascertained ;  about  which,  if 
we  are  agreed,  then,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  we  shall  also  be 
agreed  that  such  an  union  of  qualities  is  possible,  and  that 
those  in  whom  they  are  united,  and  those  only,  should  be 
rulers  in  the  State.  Let  us  assume  that  philosophical  minds 
always  love  knowledge  of  a  sort  which  shows  them  the  eter¬ 
nal  nature  not  varying  from  generation  and  corruption. 

Agreed. 

And  further,  I  said,  let  us  admit  that  they  are  lovers  of 
all  true  being ;  there  is  no  part  whether  greater  or  less,  or 
more  or  less  honourable,  which  they  are  willing  to  re¬ 
nounce ;  as  we  said  before  of  the  lover  and  the  man  of 
ambition. 

True. 

There  is  another  quality  which  they  will  also  need  if  they 
are  to  be  what  we  were  saying. 

What  quality  ? 

Truthfulness:  they  will  never  intentionally  receive  false¬ 
hood,  which  is  their  detestation,  and  they  will  love  the 
truth. 

Yes,  that  may  be  affirmed  of  them. 

‘  May  be,’  my  friend,  I  replied,  is  not  the  word;  say 
rather,  ‘  must  be  affirmed  ’ :  for  he  whose  nature  is  amor¬ 
ous  of  anything  cannot  help  loving  all  that  belongs  or  is 
akin  to  the  object  of  his  affections. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  191 


Right,  he  said. 

And  is  there  anything  more  akin  to  wisdom  than  truth  ? 

How  can  there  be  ? 

Or  can  the  same  nature  be  a  lover  of  wisdom  and  a  lover 
of  falsehood  ? 

Never. 

The  true  lover  of  learning  then  must  from  his  earliest 
youth,  as  far  as  in  him  lies,  desire  all  truth  ? 

Assuredly. 

But  then  again,  he  whose  desires  are  strong  in  one  direc¬ 
tion  will  have  them  weaker  in  others ;  they  will  be  like  a 
stream  which  has  been  drawn  off  into  another  channel. 

True. 

He  whose  desires  are  drawn  towards  knowledge  in  every 
form  will  be  absorbed  in  the  pleasures  of  the  soul,  and  will 
hardly  feel  bodily  pleasure  —  I  mean,  if  he  be  a  true  phil¬ 
osopher  and  not  a  sham  one. 

That  is  most  certain. 

Such  an  one  is  sure  to  be  temperate  and  the  reverse  of 
covetous ;  for  the  motives  which  make  another  man  desir¬ 
ous  to  have  and  to  spend,  are  no  part  of  his  character. 

Very  true. 

Another  criterion  of  the  philosophical  nature  has  also  to 
be  considered. 

What  is  that  ? 

There  should  be  no  secret  corner  of  meanness;  for  little¬ 
ness  is  the  very  opposite  of  a  soul  which  is  ever  longing 
after  the  whole  of  things  both  divine  and  human. 

Most  true,  he  replied. 

Then  how  can  he  who  has  magnificence  of  mind  and  is 
the  spectator  of  all  time  and  all  existence,  think  much  of 
human  life  ? 

He  cannot. 

Or  can  such  an  one  account  death  fearful  ? 

No  indeed. 

Then  the  cowardly  and  mean  nature  has  no  part  in  true 
philosophy  ? 

Certainly  not. 

Or  again  :  can  he  who  is  harmoniously  constituted,  who 
is  not  covetous  or  mean,  or  a  boaster,  or  a  coward  —  can 
he,  I  say,  ever  be  unjust  or  hard  in  his  dealings? 


they  are 
temperate ; 


they  are 
brave  and 
magnani¬ 
mous  ; 


192  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


they  are  just 
and  gentle  ; 


they  are  not 
forgetful. 


Impossible. 

Then  you  will  note  whether  a  man  is  just  and  gentle,  or 
rude  and  unsociable;  these  are  the  signs  which  distinguish 
even  in  youth  the  philosophical  nature  from  the  unphilo- 
sophical. 

True. 

And  there  is  another  point  which  should  be  remarked. 

What  point  ? 

Whether  he  has  or  has  not  a  pleasure  in  learning ;  for 
no  one  will  love  that  which  gives  him  pain,  and  in  which 
after  much  toil  he  makes  little  progress. 

Certainly  not. 

And  again,  if  he  is  forgetful  and  retains  nothing  of  what 
he  learns,  will  he  not  be  an  empty  vessel  ? 

That  is  certain. 

Labouring  in  vain,  he  must  end  in  hating  himself  and 
his  fruitless  occupation  ? 

Yes. 

Then  the  forgetful  soul  cannot  be  ranked  among  phi¬ 
losophers  ;  a  philosopher  ought  to  have  a  good  memory  ? 

Certainly. 

Yet  again,  the  inharmonious  and  unseemly  nature  can 
only  tend  to  disproportion  ? 

Undoubtedly. 

And  do  you  consider  truth  to  be  akin  to  proportion  or  to 
disproportion  ? 

To  proportion. 

Then,  besides  other  qualities,  let  us  seek  for  a  well-pro¬ 
portioned  and  gracious  mind,  whose  own  nature  will  move 
spontaneously  towards  the  true  being  of  everything. 

Certainly. 

Well,  and  do  not  all  these  qualities  go  together,  and  are 
they  not  necessary  to  a  soul,  which  is  to  have  a  full  and 
perfect  participation  of  being  ? 

They  are  absolutely  necessary,  he  replied. 

And  must  not  that  be  a  blameless  study  which  he  only 
can  pursue  who  has  a  good  memory,  and  is  quick  to  learn, 
noble,  gracious,  the  friend  of  truth,  justice,  courage,  tem¬ 
perance,  who  are  his  brethren  ? 

The  god  of  jealousy  himself,  he  said,  could  find  no  fault 
with  such  a  study. 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  193 

9 

And  to  these,  I  said,  when  perfected  by  years  and  edu¬ 
cation,  and  to  these  only  you  will  entrust  the  State. 

Here  Adeimantus  interposed  and  said :  To  this,  Socrates, 
no  one  can  offer  a  reply;  but  there  is  a  feeling  which  those 
who  hear  you  talk  as  you  are  now  doing  often  experience, 
and  which  I  may  describe  in  this  way :  they  fancy  that 
they  are  led  astray  a  little  at  each  step  in  the  argument, 
owing  to  their  own  want  of  skill  in  asking  and  answering 
questions ;  these  littles  accumulate,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
discussion  they  are  found  to  have  sustained  a  mighty  over¬ 
throw  and  reversal  of  their  first  notions.  And  as  unskilful 
players  of  draughts  are  at  last  shut  up  by  their  skilled  ad¬ 
versaries  and  have  no  piece  to  move,  so  they  find  them¬ 
selves  at  last  shut  up  and  have  no  word  to  cay  in  this  new 
game  of  which  words  are  the  counters  ;  and  yet  all  the 
time  they  are  in  the  right.  The  observation  is  suggested 
to  me  by  what  is  now  occurring.  For  any  one  of  us  might 
say,  that  although  in  words  he  is  not  able  to  meet  you  at 
each  step  in  the  argument,  as  a  fact  he  sees  that  the  vo¬ 
taries  of  philosophy  who  carry  on  the  study,  not  only  in 
youth  with  a  view  to  education,  but  as  the  pursuit  of  their 
maturer  years,  for  the  most  part  grow  into  very  strange 
beings,  not  to  say  utter  rogues,  and  that  those  who  may  be 
considered  the  best  of  them,  are  made  useless  to  the  world 
by  the  very  study  which  you  extol. 

Well,  I  said  ;  and  do  you  think  that  they  are  wrong  ? 

I  cannot  tell,  he  replied ;  but  I  should  like  to  know  what 
is  your  opinion. 

Hear  my  answer  ;  I  am  of  opinion  that  they  are  quite 
right. 

Then  how  can  you  be  justified  in  saying  that  cities  will 
not  cease  from  evil  until  philosophers  rule  in  them,  when 
philosophers  are  acknowledged  by  us  to  be  of  no  use  to 
them  ? 

You  ask  a  question,  I  said,  to  which  I  can  only  reply  in 
a  parable. 

Yes,  Socrates;  and  that  is  a  way  of  speaking  to  which 
you  are  not  at  all  accustomed,  I  suppose. 

I  perceive,  I  said,  that  you  are  vastly  amused  at  having 
plunged  me  into  such  a  hopeless  discussion  ;  and  now  you 
shall  hear  the  parable  in  order  that  you  may  judge  better 


This  opinion 
concerning 
philosophers 
as  the  proper 
rulers,  the 
reverse  of 
popular 
belief. 


o 


194  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


The 

objection 
answered  by 
a  parable. 


of  the  meagreness  of  my  imagination  :  for  the  treatment 
which  the  best  men  experience  from  their  States  is  so  griev¬ 
ous  that  no  single  thing  on  earth  can  be  compared  with 
them ;  and  therefore  if  I  would  defend  them  I  must  have 
recourse  to  fiction,  and  make  a  compound  of  many  things, 
like  the  fabulous  unions  of  goats  and  stags  which  are  found 
in  pictures.  Imagine  then  a  fleet  or  a  ship  in  which  there 
is  a  captain  who  is  taller  and  stronger  than  any  of  the  crew, 
but  he  is  a  little  deaf  and  has  a  similar  infirmity  in  sight, 
and  his  knowledge  of  navigation  is  not  much  better.  Now 
the  sailors  are  quarrelling  with  one  another  about  the  steer¬ 
ing  ;  every  one  is  of  opinion  that  he  ought  to  steer,  though 
he  has  never  learned  and  cannot  tell  who  taught  him  or 
when  he  learned,  and  will  even  assert  that  the  art  of  navi¬ 
gation  cannot  be  taught,  and  is  ready  to  cut  in  pieces  him 
who  says  the  contrary.  They  throng  about  the  captain, 
and  do  all  that  they  can  to  make  him  commit  the  helm  to 
them ;  and  if  he  refuses  them  and  others  prevail,  they  kill 
the  others  or  throw  them  overboard,  and  having  first 
chained  up  the  noble  captain’s  senses  with  drink  or  some 
narcotic  drug,  they  mutiny  and  take  possession  of  the  ship 
and  make  themselves  at  home  with  the  stores  ;  and  thus, 
eating  and  drinking,  they  continue  their  voyage  with  such 
success  as  might  be  expected  of  them.  Him  who  is  their 
partisan  and  zealous  in  the  design  of  getting  the  ship  out 
of  the  captain’s  hands  into  their  own,  whether  by  force  or 
persuasion,  they  compliment  with  the  name  of  sailor,  pilot, 
able  seaman,  and  abuse  the  other  sort  of  man  and  call  him 
a  good-for-nothing;  but  they  have  not  even  a  notion  that  the 
true  pilot  must  pay  attention  to  the  year  and  seasons  and 
sky  and  stars  and  winds,  and  whatever  else  belongs  to  his 
art,  if  he  intends  to  be  really  qualified  for  the  command  of 
a  ship ;  while  at  the  same  time  he  must  and  will  be  the 
steerer,  whether  other  people  like  or  not ;  and  they  think 
that  to  combine  the  exercise  of  command  with  the  steerer’s 
art  is  impossible.  Now  in  vessels  which  are  thus  circum¬ 
stanced  and  among  sailors  of  this  class,  how  will  the  true 
pilot  be  regarded  ?  Will  he  not  be  called  by  the  mutineers 
a  prater,  a  star-gazer,  a  good-for-nothing  ? 

Of  course,  said  Adeimantus. 

I  do  not  suppose,  I  said,  that  you  would  care  to  hear  the 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  195 

interpretation  of  the  figure,  which  is  an  allegory  of  the  true 
philosopher  in  his  relation  to  the  State ;  for  you  under¬ 
stand  already. 

Certainly. 

Then  suppose  you  now  take  the  parable  to  the  gentle¬ 
man  who  is  surprised  at  finding  that  philosophers  have  no 
honour  in  their  cities,  and  explain  to  him  and  try  to  con¬ 
vince  him  that  their  having  honour  would  be  far  more 
extraordinary. 

I  will. 

Say  to  him,  that,  in  deeming  the  best  of  the  votaries  of 
philosophy  to  be  useless  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  he  is 
right;  but  he  ought  to  attribute  their  uselessness  to  the 
fault  of  those  who  will  not  use  them,  and  not  to  themselves. 
The  pilot  should  not  humbly  beg  the  sailors  to  be  com¬ 
manded  by  him  —  that  is  not  the  order  of  nature;  neither 
are  the  wise  to  go  to  the  doors  of  the  rich  (the  ingenious 
author  of  this  saying  told  a  lie),  for  the  truth  is,  that,  when 
a  man  is  ill,  whether  he  be  rich  or  poor,  he  must  go  to  the 
physician’s  door  —  the  physician  will  not  come  to  him  — 
and  he  who  is  asking  to  be  governed,  to  the  door  of 
him  who  is  able  to  govern.  The  ruler  who  is  good  for 
anything  ought  not  to  ask  his  subjects  to  obey  him  ;  he 
is  not  like  the  present  governors  of  mankind,  who  may 
be  compared  to  the  mutinous  sailors,  and  the  true  helms¬ 
man  to  those  whom  they  call  good-for-nothings  and  star¬ 
gazers. 

Precisely,  he  said. 

For  these  reasons,  and  among  men  like  these,  philosophy, 
the  noblest  pursuit  of  all,  is  not  likely  to  be  much  esteemed 
by  her  adversaries ;  not  that  the  greatest  and  most  lasting 
injury  is  done  to  her  by  them,  but  by  her  own  professing 
followers,  the  same  of  whom  you  suppose  the  accuser  to 
say,  that  the  greater  number  of  them  are  arrant  rogues, 
and  the  best  are  useless ;  in  which  opinion  I  agreed. 

Yes. 

And  the  reason  why  the  good  are  useless  has  been  now 
explained  ? 

True. 

Then  shall  we  now  endeavour  to  show  that  the  corruption 
of  the  greater  number  is  also  unavoidable,  and  that  this  is 


Philosophy  is 
not  respon¬ 
sible  for  the 
ignorance 
and  corrup¬ 
tion  of  the 
masses. 


196  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

not  to  be  laid  to  the  charge  of  philosophy  any  more  than 
the  other  ? 

By  all  means. 

And  let  us  ask  and  answer  in  turn,  first  going  back  to  the 
description  of  the  gentle  and  noble  nature.  Truth,  as  you 
will  remember,  was  his  captain,  whom  he  followed  always 
and  in  all  things ;  failing  in  this,  he  was  an  impostor,  and 
had  no  part  or  lot  in  true  philosophy. 

Yes,  that  was  said. 

Well,  and  is  not  this  quality  alone  greatly  at  variance 
with  our  present  notions  of  him  ? 

Certainly,  he  said. 

And  have  we  not  a  right  to  say  in  his  defence,  that  the 
true  lover  of  knowledge  is  always  striving  after  being  — 
that  is  his  nature ;  he  will  not  rest  in  the  multiplicity  of 
individuals  which  is  an  appearance  only,  but  will  go  on  — 
the  keen  edge  will  not  be  blunted,  neither  the  force  of  his 
desire  abate  until  he  have  attained  the  knowledge  of  the 
true  nature  of  every  essence  by  a  kindred  power  in  the 
soul,  and  by  that  power  drawing  near  and  mingling  and 
becoming  incorporate  with  very  being,  having  begotten 
mind  and  truth,  he  will  know  and  live  and  grow  truly,  and 
then,  and  not  till  then,  will  he  cease  from  his  travail. 

Nothing,  he  said,  can  be  more  just  than  such  a  descrip¬ 
tion  of  him. 

And  will  the  love  of  a  lie  be  any  part  of  a  philosopher’s 
nature  ?  Will  he  not  utterly  hate  a  lie  ? 

He  will. 

And  when  truth  is  the  captain,  we  cannot  suspect  any 
evil  of  the  band  which  he  leads  ? 

Impossible. 

Justice  and  health  will  be  of  the  company,  and  temper¬ 
ance  will  follow  after  ? 

True,  he  replied. 

Neither  is  there  any  reason  why  I  should  again  set 
in  array  the  philosopher’s  virtues,  as  you  will  doubt¬ 
less  remember  that  courage,  magnanimity,  apprehension, 
memory,  were  his  natural  gifts.  And  you  objected  that, 
although  no  one  could  deny  what  I  then  said,  still,  if  you 
leave  words  and  look  at  facts,  the  persons  who  are  thus 
described  are  some  of  them  manifestly  useless,  and  the 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  197 

greater  number  wholly  depraved ;  we  were  then  led  to 
inquire  into  the  grounds  of  these  accusations,  and  we  had 
arrived  at  the  point  of  asking  why  are  the  many  bad, 
which  question  of  necessity  brought  us  back  to  the  exami¬ 
nation  and  definition  of  the  true  philosopher. 

Exactly. 

And  now  we  have  to  consider  the  corruptions  of  the 
philosophical  nature,  why  so  many  are  spoiled  and  so  few 
escape  spoiling — I  am  speaking  of  those  whom  you  call 
useless  but  not  wicked  —  and  after  that  we  will  consider 
the  imitators  of  philosophy,  what  manner  of  natures  are 
they  who  aspire  after  a  profession  which  is  above  them 
and  of  which  they  are  unworthy,  and  then,  by  their  mani¬ 
fold  inconsistencies,  bring  upon  philosophy,  and  upon  all 
philosophers,  that  universal  reprobation  of  which  we  speak. 

What  are  these  corruptions,  he  said  ? 

I  will  see  if  I  can  explain  them  to  you.  Every  one  will 
admit  that  a  nature  having  in  perfection  all  the  qualities 
which  make  a  philosopher,  is  a  plant  that  rarely  grows 
among  men  —  there  are  not  many  of  them. 

They  are  very  rare. 

And  what  numberless  causes  may  tend  utterly  to  destroy 
these  rare  natures ! 

What  causes  ? 

In  the  first  place  there  are  their  own  virtues,  their  cour¬ 
age,  temperance,  and  the  rest  of  them,  every  one  of  which 
praiseworthy  qualities  (and  this  is  a  most  singular  circum¬ 
stance)  destroys  and  distracts  from  philosophy  the  soul 
which  is  the  possessor  of  them. 

That  is  very  singular,  he  replied. 

Then  there  are  all  the  ordinary  goods  of  life  —  beauty, 
wealth,  strength,  rank,  and  great  connections  in  the  State 
—  which  I  have  described  generally,  and  therefore  need 
not  enlarge  upon  them;  —  these  also  have  a  corrupting 
and  distracting  effect. 

I  know  the  goods  which  you  mean,  and  I  should  like  to 
know  more  precisely  what  you  mean  about  them. 

Grasp  the  truth  as  a  whole,  I  said,  and  in  the  right  way ; 
you  will  then  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  pre¬ 
ceding  remarks,  and  they  will  no  longer  appear  strange  to 
you. 


The  corrupt 
types  of  phil¬ 
osophical 
nature. 


198  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

And  how  am  I  to  do  so  ?  he  asked. 

Why,  I  said,  we  know  that  when  any  germ  or  seed, 
whether  vegetable  or  animal,  fails  to  meet  with  proper 
nutriment  or  climate  or  soil,  the  greater  the  vigour,  the 
more  will  it  lack  its  proper  qualities,  for  evil  is  a  greater 
enemy  to  good  than  to  the  not-good. 

Very  true. 

There  is  reason  in  supposing  that  the  finest  natures, 
when  under  alien  conditions,  receive  more  injury  than  the 
inferior,  because  the  contrast  is  greater. 

Very  true.1 

******* 


BOOK  VII 

******* 

Yes,  my  friend,  I  said;  and  there  lies  the  point.  You 
must  contrive  for  your  future  rulers  another  and  a  better 
life  than  that  of  a  ruler,  and  then  you  may  have  a  well- 
ordered  State;  for  only  in  the  State  which  offers  this,  will 
they  rule  who  are  truly  rich,  not  in  silver  and  gold,  but  in 
virtue  and  wisdom,  which  are  the  true  blessings  of  life. 
Whereas  if  they  go  to  the  administration  of  public  affairs, 
poor  and  hungering  after  their  own  private  advantage, 
thinking  that  hence  they  are  to  snatch  the  good  of  life, 
order  there  can  never  be ;  for  they  will  be  fighting  about 
office,  and  the  civil  and  domestic  broils  which  thus  arise 
will  be  the  ruin  of  the  rulers  themselves  and  of  the  whole 
State. 

Most  true,  he  replied. 

And  the  only  life  which  looks  down  upon  the  life  of 
political  ambition  is  that  of  true  philosophy  ?  Do  you  know 
of  any  other  ? 

No,  indeed,  he  said. 

And  those  who  govern  ought  not  to  be  lovers  of  the 
task  ?  For  if  they  are,  there  will  be  rival  lovers,  and  they 
will  fight. 

No  question. 

Whom  then  would  you  choose  rather  than  those  who  are 


1  The  extract  relating  to  the  Sophists  is  given  in  Chapter  III. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  199 


wisest  about  affairs  of  State,  and  who  at  the  same  time 
have  other  honours  and  another  and  a  better  life  ? 

They  are  the  men,  and  I  will  choose  them,  he  replied. 

Would  you  like  us  then  to  consider  in  what  way  such 
guardians  may  be  called  into  existence,  and  how  they  are 
to  be  brought  from  darkness  to  light,  —  as  some  are  said 
to  have  ascended  from  the  world  below  to  the  gods  ? 

Certainly  I  should,  he  replied. 

The  process,  I  said,  is  not  the  turning  over  of  an  oyster- 
shell,  but  the  turning  round  of  a  soul  from  darkness  visi¬ 
ble  to  the  upward  path  of  truth  and  being. 

Very  true. 

And  should  we  not  enquire  what  sort  of  knowledge  has 
the  power  of  effecting  such  a  change  ? 

Certainly. 

What  sort  of  knowledge  is  there  which  would  draw  the 
soul  from  becoming  to  being  ?  And  another  consideration 
has  just  occurred  to  me  :  You  will  remember  that  our 
young  men  are  to  be  warrior  athletes  ? 

Yes,  that  was  said. 

Then  this  new  kind  of  knowledge  must  have  another 
quality  ? 

What  quality  ? 

Usefulness  in  war. 

Yes,  if  possible.' 

There  were  two  parts  in  our  former  scheme  of  educa¬ 
tion,  were  there  not  ? 

True. 

There  was  gymnastic  which  presided  over  the  growth 
and  decay  of  the  body,  and  may  therefore  be  regarded  as 
having  to  do  with  generation  and  corruption  ? 

True. 

Then  that  is  not  the  knowledge  which  we  are  seeking 
to  discover  ? 

No. 

But  what  do  you  say  of  music,  for  that  also  entered  to  a 
certain  extent  into  our  scheme  ? 

That,  he  said,  as  you  will  remember,  was  the  counter¬ 
part  of  gymnastic,  and  trained  the  guardians  by  the  influ¬ 
ences  of  habit,  by  harmony  making  them  harmonious,  and 
by  rhythm  rhythmical,  although  not  giving  them  science ; 


How  the 
guardian 
class  is  to  be 
created. 


What  sub¬ 
jects  of  study 
in  addition 
to  those 
previously 
discussed  ? 


Arithmetic. 


Its  value. 


200  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

and  the  words,  whether  fabulous  or  partly  true,  had  kin¬ 
dred  elements  of  rhythm  and  harmony  in  them.  But 
musical  knowledge  was  not  of  a  kind  which  tended  to  that 
good  which  you  are  now  seeking. 

You  are  most  accurate,  I  said,  in  your  recollection;  for 
in  music  there  certainly  was  nothing  of  the  kind.  But 
what  branch  of  knowledge  is  there,  my  dear  friend,  which 
is  of  the  desired  nature ;  since  all  the  useful  arts  were 
reckoned  mean  by  us  ? 

Undoubtedly  ;  and  yet  if  music  and  gymnastic  are  ex¬ 
cluded,  and  the  arts  are  also  excluded,  what  remains  ? 

Well,  I  said,  there  may  be  nothing  left ;  and  then  we  shall 
have  to  take  something  which  is  of  universal  application. 

What  may  that  be  ? 

A  something  which  all  arts  and  sciences  and  intelli¬ 
gences  use  in  common,  and  which  every  one  ought  to 
learn  among  the  elements  of  education. 

What  is  that  ? 

The  little  matter  of  distinguishing  one,  two,  and  three 

in  a  word,  number  and  calculation:  —  do  not  all  arts  and 
sciences  necessarily  partake  of  them  ? 

Yes. 

Then  the  art  of  war  partakes  of  them  ? 

To  be  sure. 

Then  Palamedes,  when  he  appears  in  the  play,  proves 
Agamemnon  ridiculously  unfit  to  be  a  general.  Did  you 
never  remark  how  he  declares  that  he  had  invented  number, 
and  had  numbered  and  set  in  array  the  ranks  of  the  army 
at  Troy  ,  which  implies  that  they  had  never  been  numbered 
before,  and  Agamemnon  must  be  supposed  literally  to  have 
been  incapable  of  counting  his  own  feet  —  how  could  he  if 
he  was  ignorant  of  number  ?  And  if  that  is  true,  what 
sort  of  general  must  he  have  been  ? 

I  should  say  a  very  strange  one,  certainly. 

Must  not  a  warrior,  then,  I  said,  in  addition  to  his  mili¬ 
tary  skill,  have  a  knowledge  of  arithmetic  ? 

Certainly  he  must,  if  he  is  to  have  the  least  understand- 
ing  of  military  tactics,  or  indeed,  I  should  rather  say,  if  he 
is  to  be  a  man  at  all. 

I  should  like  to  know  whether  you  have  the  same  notion 
which  I  have  of  this  study  ? 


201 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View 

What  is  your  notion  ? 

It  appears  to  me  to  be  a  study  which  leads  naturally  to 
reflection,  and  is  of  the  kind  which  we  are  seeking,  but  has 
never  been  rightfully  used ;  for  it  is  really  of  use  in  draw¬ 
ing  us  towards  being. 

Will  you  explain  your  meaning  ?  he  said. 

I  will  try,  I  said ;  and  I  wish  you  would  consider  and 
help  me,  and  say  ‘  yes  ’  or  ‘  no  ’  when  I  attempt  to  distin¬ 
guish  in  my  own  mind  what  branches  of  knowledge  have 
this  attracting  power,  in  order  that  we  may  have  clearer 
proof  that  arithmetic  is  one  of  them. 

Explain,  he  said. 

I  mean  to  say  that  objects  of  sense  are  of  two  kinds ; 
some  of  them  do  not  invite  thought  because  the  sense  is  an 
adequate  judge  of  them  ;  while  in  the  case  of  other  objects 
there  is  a  mistrust  of  the  senses  which  imperatively 
demands  enquiry. 

You  must  be  referring,  he  said,  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  senses  are  imposed  upon  by  distance,  and  by  painting 
in  light  and  shade. 

No,  I  said,  that  is  not  my  meaning. 

Then  what  is  your  meaning? 

When  speaking  of  uninviting  objects,  I  mean  those 
which  do  not  pass  from  one  sensation  to  another ;  inviting 
objects  are  those  which  give  opposite  sensations ;  in  this 
latter  case  the  sense  coming  upon  the  object,  whether  at  a 
distance  or  near,  gives  no  more  vivid  idea  of  anything  in 
particular  than  of  its  opposite.  An  illustration  will  make 
my  meaning  clearer:  —  here  are  three  fingers  —  a  little 
finger,  a  second  finger,  and  a  middle  finger. 

Very  good. 

You  may  suppose  that  they  are  seen  quite  close  And 
here  comes  the  point. 

What  is  that  ? 

Each  of  them  equally  appears  a  finger,  whether  seen  in 
the  middle  or  at  the  extremity,  whether  white  or  black,  or 
thick  or  thin  —  it  makes  no  difference ;  a  finger  is  a  finger 
all  the  same.  And  in  all  these  cases  the  ordinary  soul  is 
not  compelled  to  ask  of  thought  the  question  what  is  a  fin¬ 
ger  ?  for  the  sight  never  intimates  to  her  that  a  finger  is 
other  than  a  finger. 


202  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

True. 

And  therefore,  I  said,  there  is  nothing  here  which  in¬ 
vites  or  excites  intelligence. 

There  is  not,  he  said. 

But  is  this  equally  true  of  the  greatness  and  smallness  of 
the  fingers  ?  Can  sight  adequately  perceive  them  ?  and  is 
no  difference  made  by  the  circumstance  that  one  of  the 
fingers  is  in  the  middle  and  another  at  the  extremity  ? 
And  in  like  manner  does  the  touch  adequately  perceive  the 
qualities  of  thickness  or  thinness,  or  softness  or  hardness  ? 
And  so  of  the  other  senses ;  do  they  give  perfect  intima¬ 
tions  of  such  matters  ?  Is  not  their  mode  of  operation 
rather  on  this  wise  —  the  sense  which  is  concerned  with  the 
quality  of  hardness  is  necessarily  concerned  also  with 
the  quality  of  softness,  and  only  intimates  to  the  soul  that 
the  same  thing  is  felt  to  be  hard  and  soft  ? 

Very  true,  he  said. 

And  must  not  the  soul  be  perplexed  at  this  intimation  of 
a  hard  which  is  also  soft  ?  What,  again,  is  the  meaning  of 
light  and  heavy,  if  that  which  is  light  is  also  heavy,  and 
that  which  is  heavy,  light  ? 

Yes,  he  said,  these  intimations  are  very  curious  and  have 
to  be  explained. 

Yes,  I  said,  and  in  these  perplexities  the  soul  naturally 
summons  to  her  aid  calculation  and  intelligence,  that  she 
may  see  whether  the  several  objects  announced  are  one  or 
two. 

True. 

And  if  they  turn  out  to  be  two,  is  not  each  of  them  one 
and  different  ? 

Certainly. 

And  if  each  is  one,  and  both  are  two,  she  will  conceive 
the  two  as  in  a  state  of  division,  for  if  they  were  undivided 
they  could  only  be  conceived  of  as  one  ? 

True. 

The  eye  certainly  did  behold  both  small  and  great,  not 
divided  but  confused. 

Yes. 

Whereas  the  thinking  mind,  intending  to  light  up  the 
chaos,  was  compelled  to  reverse  the  process,  and  look  at 
small  and  great  as  separate  and  not  confused. 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  203 


Very  true. 

And  was  not  this  the  beginning  of  the  inquiry  “  What  is 
great  ?  ”  and  “  What  is  small  ?” 

Exactly  so. 

Here  began  the  distinction  of  the  visible  and  the  intel¬ 
ligible. 

Most  true. 

And  that  is  an  illustration  of  my  meaning  in  describing 
impressions  as  inviting  to  the  intellect,  or  the  reverse  — 
the  inviting  impressions  are  simultaneous  with  opposite 
impressions. 

I  understand,  he  said,  and  agree  with  you. 

And  to  which  class  do  unity  and  number  belong  ? 

I  do  not  know,  he  replied. 

Think  a  little  and  you  will  see  that  what  has  preceded 
will  supply  the  answer ;  for  if  simple  unity,  and  that  only, 
can  be  adequately  perceived  by  the  sight  or  by  any  other 
sense,  then,  as  we  were  saying  in  the  case  of  the  fingers, 
there  will  be  nothing  to  attract  towards  being  ;  but  when 
there  is  some  contradiction  always  present,  and  one  is  the 
reverse  of  one  and  involves  the  conception  of  plurality, 
then  thought  begins  to  be  aroused  within,  and  the  soul  per¬ 
plexed  and  wanting  to  arrive  at  a  decision  asks  “  What  is 
absolute  unity  ?  ”  And  this  is  the  way  in  which  the  study 
of  the  one  has  a  power  of  drawing  and  converting  the 
mind  to  the  contemplation  of  true  being. 

And  surely,  he  said,  this  occurs  notably  when  we  look 
at  one,  for  the  same  thing  is  seen  by  us  as  one  and  as 
infinite  in  multitude? 

Yes,  I  said  ;  and  this  being  true  of  one  must  be  equally 
true  of  all  number  ? 

Certainly. 

And  all  arithmetic  and  calculation  have  to  do  with 
number  ? 

Yes. 

And  they  are  conductors  to  truth  ? 

Yes,  in  an  eminent  degree. 

Then  this  is  the  sort  of  knowledge  of  which  we  are  in 
search,  having  a  double  use,  military  and  philosophical ; 
for  the  man  of  war  must  learn  the  art  of  number  that  he 
may  know  how  to  array  his  troops,  and  the  philosopher 


Arithmetic 
a  means  for 
developing 
the  sense  for 
ideas. 


204  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Educatio7i 

also,  because  he  has  to  rise  out  of  the  sea  of  change  and 
lay  hold  of  true  being,  if  he  would  be  an  arithmetician. 

That  is  true. 

And  our  guardian  is  both  warrior  and  philosopher  ? 

Certainly. 

Then  this  is  a  kind  of  knowledge  which  legislation  may 
fitly  prescribe ;  and  we  must  endeavour  to  persuade  the 
principal  men  of  our  State  to  go  and  learn  arithmetic,  not 
as  amateurs,  but  they  must  carry  on  the  study  until  they 
see  the  nature  of  numbers  in  the  mind  only  ;  nor  again,  in 
the  spirit  of  merchants  or  traders,  with  a  view  to  buying  or 
selling,  but  for  the  sake  of  their  military  use,  and  of  the 
soul  herself ;  and  because  this  will  be  the  easiest  way  for 
her  to  pass  from  becoming  to  truth  and  being. 

That  is  excellent,  he  said. 

Yes,  I  said  ;  and  now  having  spoken  of  it,  I  must  add 
how  charming  the  science  is !  and  in  how  many  ways  it 
conduces  to  our  desired  end,  if  pursued  in  the  spirit  of  a 
philosopher,  and  not  of  a  shopkeeper ! 

How  do  you  mean  ? 

I  mean,  as  I  was  saying,  that  arithmetic  has  a  very  great 
and  elevating  effect,  compelling  the  soul  to  reason  about 
abstract  number,  and  rebelling  against  the  introduction  of 
visible  or  tangible  objects  into  the  argument.  You  know 
how  steadily  the  masters  of  the  art  repel  and  ridicule  any 
one  who  attempts  to  divide  absolute  unity  when  he  is  cal¬ 
culating,  and  if  you  divide,  they  multiply,  taking  care  that 
one  shall  continue  one  and  not  become  lost  in  fractions. 

That  is  very  true. 

Now,  suppose  a  person  were  to  say  to  them  :  O  my 
friends,  what  are  these  wonderful  numbers  about  which 
you  are  reasoning,  in  which,  as  you  say,  there  is  a  unity 
such  as  you  require,  and  each  unit  is  equal,  invariable, 
indivisible,  —  what  would  they  answer? 

They  would  answer,  as  I  suppose,  that  they  were  speak¬ 
ing  of  those  numbers  which  are  only  realized  in  thought. 

Then  you  see  that  this  knowledge  may  be  truly  called 
necessary,  necessitating  as  it  does  the  use  of  the  pure  in¬ 
telligence  in  the  attainment  of  pure  truth  ? 

Yes;  that  is  a  marked  characteristic  of  it. 

And  have  you  further  remarked,  that  those  who  have  a 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  205 


natural  talent  for  calculation  are  generally  quick  at  every 
other  kind  of  knowledge ;  and  even  the  dull,  if  they  have 
had  an  arithmetical  training,  gain  in  quickness,  if  not  in 
any  other  way  ? 

Very  true,  he  said. 

And  indeed,  you  will  not  easily  find  a  more  difficult 
study,  and  not  many  as  difficult. 

You  will  not. 

And,  for  these  reasons,  arithmetic  is  a  kind  of  knowl¬ 
edge  in  which  the  best  natures  should  be  trained,  and 
which  must  not  be  given  up. 

I  agree. 

Let  this  then  be  made  one  of  our  subjects  of  education. 
And  next,  shall  we  enquire  whether  the  kindred  science 
also  concerns  us  ? 

You  mean  geometry? 

Yes. 

Certainly,  he  said  ;  that  part  of  geometry  which  relates 
to  war  is  clearly  our  concern;  for  in  pitching  a  camp,  or 
taking  up  a  position,  or  closing  or  extending  the  lines  of 
an  army,  or  any  other  military  manoeuvre,  whether  in  actual 
battle  or  on  a  march,  there  will  be  a  great  difference  in  a 
general,  according  as  he  is  or  is  not  a  geometrician. 

Yes,  I  said,  but  for  that  purpose  a  very  little  of  either 
geometry  or  calculation  will  be  enough  ;  the  question  is 
rather  of  the  higher  and  greater  part  of  geometry,  whether 
that  tends  towards  the  great  end  —  I  mean  towards  the 
vision  of  the  idea  of  good ;  and  thither,  as  I  was  saying, 
all  things  tend  which  compel  the  soul  to  turn  her  gaze 
towards  that  place,  where  is  the  full  perfection  of  being, 
of  which  she  ought,  by  all  means,  to  attain  the  vision. 

True,  he  said. 

Then  if  geometry  compels  us  to  view  being,  it  concerns 
us  ;  if  becoming  only,  it  does  not  concern  us  ? 

Yes,  that  is  what  we  assert. 

Nevertheless,  such  a  conception  of  the  science  is  in  flat 
contradiction  to  the  ordinary  language  of  geometricians, 
as  will  hardly  be  denied  by  those  who  have*any  acquain¬ 
tance  with  their  study  :  for  they  speak  of  squaring  and 
applying  and  adding,  having  in  view  use  only,  and  absurdly 
confuse  the  necessities  of  geometry  with  those  of  daily 


Geometry : 
—  its  practi¬ 
cal  and  its 
theoretical 
value. 


Its  indirect 
advantages. 


Astronomy  : 
—  its  practi¬ 
cal  value. 


206  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

life;  whereas  knowledge  is  the  real  object  of  the  whole 
science. 

Certainly,  he  said. 

Then  must  not  a  further  admission  be  made  ? 

What  admission  ? 

The  admission  that  this  knowledge  at  which  geometry 
aims  is  of  the  eternal,  and  not  of  the  perishing  and  transient. 

That,  he  replied,  may  be  readily  allowed,  and  is  true. 

Then,  my  noble  friend,  geometry  will  draw  the  soul 
towards  truth,  and  create  the  spirit  of  philosophy,  and 
raise  up  that  which  is  now  unhappily  allowed  to  fall 
down. 

Nothing  will  be  more  effectual. 

Then  nothing  should  be  more  effectually  enacted  than 
that  the  inhabitants  of  your  fair  city  should  learn  geom¬ 
etry.  Moreover  the  science  has  indirect  effects,  which  are 
not  small. 

Of  what  kind  are  they  ?  he  said. 

There  are  the  military  advantages  of  which  you  spoke, 
I  said ;  and  in  all  departments  of  study,  as  experience 
proves,  any  one  who  has  studied  geometry  is  infinitely 
quicker  of  apprehension  than  one  who  has  not  studied  it. 

Yes,  he  said,  the  difference  between  a  geometrician  and 
one  who  is  not  a  geometrician  is  very  great  indeed. 

Then  shall  we  propose  this  as  a  second  branch  of  knowl¬ 
edge  which  our  youth  will  study  ? 

Let  us  make  the  proposal,  he  replied. 

And  suppose  we  make  astronomy  the  third  —  what  do 
you  say  ? 

I  am  strongly  inclined  to  it,  he  said ;  the  observation  of 
the  seasons  and  of  months  and  years  is  quite  essential  to 
husbandry  and  navigation,  and  not  less  essential  to  military 
tactics. 

I  am  amused,  I  said,  at  your  fear  of  the  world,  which 
makes  you  guard  against  the  appearance  of  insisting  upon 
useless  studies ;  and  I  quite  admit  the  difficulty  of  believ- 
ing  that  in  every  man  there  is  an  eye  of  the  soul  which, 
when  by  other  pursuits  lost  and  dimmed,  is  by  these  puri¬ 
fied  and  re-illumined ;  and  is  more  precious  far  than  ten 
thousand  bodily  eyes,  for  by  this  alone  is  truth  seen.  Now 
there  are  two  classes  of  persons :  one  class  who  will  agree 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  207 

with  you  and  will  take  your  words  as  a  revelation ;  another 
class  who  have  no  understanding  of  them,  and  to  whom 
they  will  naturally  seem  to  be  idle  tales.  And  you  had 
better  decide  at  once  with  which  of  the  two  you  are  argu¬ 
ing  ;  or,  perhaps,  you  will  say  with  neither,  and  that  your 
chief  aim  in  carrying  on  the  argument  is  your  own  im¬ 
provement  ;  at  the  same  time  not  grudging  to  others  any 
benefit  which  they  may  derive. 

I  think  that  I  should  prefer  to  carry  on  the  argument 
on  my  own  behalf. 

Then  take  a  step  backward,  for  we  have  gone  wrong  in 
the  order  of  the  sciences. 

What  was  the  mistake  ?  he  said. 

After  plane  geometry,  I  said,  we  took  solids  in  revolu¬ 
tion,  instead  of  taking  solids  in  themselves ;  whereas  after 
the  second  dimension  the  third,  which  is  concerned  with 
cubes  and  dimensions  of  depth,  ought  to  have  followed. 

That  is  true,  Socrates;  but  these  subjects  seem  to  be  as 
yet  hardly  explored. 

Why,  yes,  I  said,  and  for  two  reasons:  —  in  the  first 
place,  no  government  patronises  them,  which  leads  to  a 
want  of  energy  in  the  study  of  them,  and  they  are  diffi¬ 
cult  ;  in  the  second  place,  students  cannot  learn  them 
unless  they  have  a  teacher.  But  then  a  teacher  can  hardly 
be  found,  and  even  if  he  could,  as  matters  now  stand,  the 
students,  who  are  very  conceited,  would  not  mind  him. 
That,  however,  would  be  otherwise  if  the  whole  State 
patronised  and  honoured  these  studies ;  then  they  would 
find  disciples,  and  there  would  be  continuous  and  earnest 
search,  and  discoveries  would  be  made ;  since  even  now, 
disregarded  as  they  are  by  the  world,  and  maimed  of  their 
fair  proportions,  and  although  none  of  their  votaries  can 
tell  the  use  of  them,  still  these  studies  force  their  way  by 
their  natural  charm,  and  very  likely  they  may  emerge  into 
light. 

Yes,  he  said,  there  is  a  remarkable  charm  in  them.  But 
I  do  not  clearly  understand  the  change  in  the  order. 
First  you  began  with  a  geometry  of  plane  surfaces  ? 

Yes,  I  said. 

And  you  placed  astronomy  next,  and  then  you  made  a 
step  backward  ? 


The  theo¬ 
retic  value  of 
astronomy. 


208  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Yes,  and  I  have  delayed  you  by  my  haste ;  the  ludicrous 
state  of  solid  geometry  made  me  pass  over  this  branch  and 
go  on  to  astronomy,  or  motion  of  solids. 

True,  he  said. 

Then  assuming  that  the  science  now  omitted  would  come 
into  existence  if  encouraged  by  the  State,  let  us  go  on  to 
astronomy,  which  will  be  fourth. 

The  right  order,  he  replied.  And  now,  Socrates,  as  you 
rebuked  the  vulgar  manner  in  which  I  praised  astronomy 
before,  my  praise  shall  be  more  worthy  of  your  own  spirit. 
For  every  one,  as  I  think,  must  feel  that  astronomy  com¬ 
pels  the  soul  to  look  upwards,  and  leads  us  from  this  world 
to  another. 

I  am  an  exception  then,  for  I  should  rather  say  that 
those  who  elevate  astronomy  into  philosophy  make  us  look 
downwards  and  not  upwards. 

What  do  you  mean  ?  he  asked. 

You,  I  replied,  have  in  your  mind  a  sublime  conception 
of  how  we  know  the  things  above.  And  I  dare  say  that  if 
a  person  were  to  throw  his  head  back  and  study  the  fretted 
ceiling,  you  would  still  think  that  his  mind  was  the  per¬ 
cipient,  and  not  his  eyes.  And  you  are  very  likely  right, 
and  I  may  be  a  simpleton  :  but,  in  my  opinion,  that  knowl¬ 
edge  only  which  is  of  being  and  of  the  unseen  can  make 
the  soul  look  upwards,  and  whether  a  man  gapes  at  the 
heavens  or  blinks  on  the  ground,  seeking  to  learn  some 
particular  of  sense,  I  would  deny  that  he  can  learn,  for 
nothing  of  that  sort  is  matter  of  science  ;  his  soul  is  look¬ 
ing,  not  upwards,  but  downwards,  whether  his  way  to 
knowledge  is  by  water  or  by  land,  in  whichever  element 
he  may  lie  on  his  back  and  float. 

I  acknowledge,  he  said,  the  justice  of  your  rebuke. 
Still,  I  should  like  to  ascertain  how  astronomy  can  be 
learned  in  any  manner  more  conducive  to  that  knowledge 
of  which  we  speak  ? 

I  answered  :  The  starry  heaven  which  we  behold  is 
wrought  upon  a  visible  ground,  and  therefore,  although 
the  fairest  and  most  perfect  of  visible  things,  must  neces¬ 
sarily  be  deemed  inferior  far  to  the  true  motions  of  abso¬ 
lute  swiftness  and  absolute  slowness,  which  are  relative  to 
each  other,  and  carry  with  them  that  which  is  contained  in 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  209 

them,  in  the  true  number  and  in  every  true  figure.  Now, 
these  are  to  be  apprehended  by  reason  and  intelligence, 
but  not  by  sight. 

True,  he  replied. 

The  spangled  heavens  should  be  used  as  a  pattern  and 
with  a  view  to  that  higher  knowledge ;  their  beauty  is  like 
the  beauty  of  figures  or  pictures  wrought  by  the  hand  of 
Daedalus,  or  some  other  great  artist,  which  we  may  chance 
to  behold ;  any  geometrician  who  saw  them  would  appre¬ 
ciate  the  exquisiteness  of  their  workmanship,  but  he  would 
never  dream  of  thinking  that  in  them  he  could  find  the 
true  equal  or  the  true  double,  or  the  truth  of  any  other 
proportion. 

No,  he  said,  to  think  so  would  be  ridiculous. 

And  will  not  a  true  astronomer  have  the  same  feeling 
when  he  looks  at  the  movements  of  the  stars  ?  Will  he 
not  think  that  heaven  and  the  things  in  heaven  are  framed 
by  the  Creator  in  the  most  perfect  manner  ?  But  when  he 
reflects  that  the  proportions  of  night  and  day,  or  of  both 
to  the  month,  or  of  the  month  to  the  year,  or  of  the  other 
stars  to  these  and  to  one  another,  are  of  the  visible  and 
material,  he  will  never  fall  into  the  error  of  supposing  that 
they  are  eternal  and  liable  to  no  deviation  —  that  would  be 
monstrous ;  he  will  rather  seek  in  every  possible  way  to 
discover  the  truth  of  them. 

I  quite  agree  now  that  you  tell  me  so. 

Then,  I  said,  in  astronomy,  as  in  geometry,  we  should 
use  problems,  and  let  the  heavens  alone  if  we  desire  to 
have  a  real  knowledge  of  the  science,  and  to  train  the  rea¬ 
soning  faculty  by  the  aid  of  it. 

That,  he  said,  is  a  work  infinitely  beyond  our  present 
astronomers. 

Yes,  I  said;  and  there  are  many  other  things  which 
must  also  have  a  similar  extension  given  to  them,  if  our 
legislation  is  to  be  of  any  use. 

Can  you  tell  me  of  any  other  suitable  study  ? 

No,  he  said,  not  without  thinking. 

Motion,  I  said,  has  many  forms,  and  not  one  only ;  two 
of  them  are  obvious  enough ;  and  there  are  others,  as  I 
imagine,  which  may  be  left  to  wiser  heads  than  ours. 

But  where  are  the  two  ? 


2io  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


The  science 
of  music  or 
of  harmony. 


There  is  a  second,  I  said,  which  is  the  counterpart  of 
the  one  already  named. 

And  what  may  that  be  ? 

The  second,  I  said,  would  seem  relatively  to  the  ears  to 
be  what  the  first  is  to  the  eyes ;  for  I  conceive  that  as  the 
eyes  are  designed  to  look  up  at  the  stars,  so  are  the  ears 
to  hear  harmonious  motions,  and  these  are  sister  sciences 
—  as  the  Pythagoreans  say,  and  we,  Glaucon,  agree  with 
them  ? 

Yes,  he  replied. 

But  this,  I  said,  is  a  laborious  study,  and  therefore  we 
had  better  go  and  learn  of  them ;  and  they  will  tell  us 
whether  there  are  any  other  applications  of  these  sciences. 
At  the  same  time,  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  our  own  higher 
object. 

What  is  that  ? 

There  is  a  perfection  which  all  knowledge  ought  to 
reach,  and  which  our  pupils  ought  also  to  attain,  and  not 
to  fall  short  of,  as  I  was  saying  that  they  did  in  astronomy. 
For  in  the  science  of  harmony,  as  you  probably  know,  they 
are  equally  empirical.  The  sounds  and  consonances  which 
they  compare  are  those  which  are  heard  only,  and  their 
labour,  like  that  of  the  astronomers,  is  in  vain. 

Yes,  by  heaven  !  he  said  ;  and  ’tis  as  good  as  a  play  to 
hear  them  talking  about  their  condensed  notes,  as  they  call 
them ,  they  put  their  ears  alongside  of  their  neighbours  as 
if  to  get  a  sound  out  of  them  —  one  set  of  them  declaring 
that  they  catch  a.n  intermediate  note  and  have  found  the 
least  interval  which  should  be  the  unit  of  measurement ; 
the  others  maintaining  the  opposite  theory  that  the  two 
sounds  have  passed  into  the  same  —  either  party  setting 
their  ears  before  their  understanding. 

You  mean,  I  said,  those  gentlemen  who  tease  and  tor¬ 
ture  the  strings  and  rack  them  on  the  pegs  of  the  instru¬ 
ment :  I  might  carry  on  the  metaphor  and  speak  after 
their  manner  of  the  blows  which  the  plectrum  gives,  and 
make  accusations  against  the  strings,  both  of  backwardness 
and  forwardness  to  sound ;  but  this  would  be  tedious,  and 
therefore  I  will  only  say  that  these  are  not  the  men,  but 
that  I  am  speaking  of  the  Pythagoreans,  of  whom  I  was 
just  now  proposing  to  enquire  about  harmony.  For  they 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  2 1 1 


too  are  in  error,  like  the  astronomers ;  they  investigate  the 
numbers  of  the  harmonies  which  are  heard,  but  they  never 
attain  to  problems  —  that  is  to  say,  they  never  reach  the 
natural  harmonies  of  number,  or  reflect  why  some  numbers 
are  harmonious  and  others  not. 

That,  he  said,  is  a  thing  of  more  than  mortal  knowledge. 

A  thing,  I  replied,  which  I  would  rather  call  useful ; 
that  is,  if  pursued  with  a  view  to  the  beautiful  and  good ; 
but  if  pursued  in  any  other  spirit,  useless. 

Very  true,  he  said. 

Now,  when  all  these  studies  reach  the  point  of  intercom¬ 
munion  and  connection  with  one  another,  and  come  to  be 
considered  in  their  mutual  affinities,  then,  I  think,  but  not 
till  then,  will  the  pursuit  of  them  have  a  value  for  our 
objects;  otherwise  they  are  useless. 

I  suspect  so ;  but  you  are  speaking,  Socrates,  of  a  vast 
work. 

What  do  you  mean  ?  I  said  ;  the  prelude  or  what  ?  Do 
you  not  know  that  all  this  is  but  the  prelude  to  the  actual 
strain  which  we  have  to  learn  ?  For  you  surely  would  not 
regard  the  skilled  mathematician  as  a  dialectician  ? 

Assuredly  not,  he  said ;  I  have  hardly  ever  known  a 
mathematician  who  was  capable  of  reasoning. 

But  do  you  imagine  that  men  who  are  unable  to  give 
and  take  a  reason  will  have  the  knowledge  which  we  re¬ 
quire  of  them  ? 

Neither  can  this  be  said  any  more  than  the  other. 

And  so,  Glaucon,  we  have  at  last  arrived  at  dialectic. 
This  is  that  strain  which  is  of  the  intellect  only,  but  which 
the  faculty  of  sight  will  nevertheless  be  found  to  imitate ; 
for  sight,  as  you  may  remember,  was  finally  imagined  by 
us  to  behold  real  animals  and  the  stars,  and  last  of  all  the 
sun  himself.  And  so  with  dialectic ;  when  a  person  starts 
on  the  discovery  of  the  absolute  by  the  light  of  reason  only, 
and  without  any  assistance  of  sense,  if  he  perseveres  by 
pure  intelligence,  he  attains  at  last  to  the  idea  of  good,  and 
finds  himself  at  the  end  of  the  intellectual  world,  as  in  the 
other  case  at  the  end  of  the  visible. 

Exactly,  he  said. 

Then  this  is  the  progress  which  you  call  dialectic  ? 

True. 


These  four 
studies  form 
a  prelude  to 
the  study  of 
dialectic. 


212 


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The  nature 
and  the 
divisions  of 
dialectic. 


The 

previous  arts 
and  sciences 
are  partially 
concerned 
with 
opinion; 


But  the  release  of  the  prisoners  from  chains,  and  their 
translation  from  the  shadows  to  the  images  and  to  the  light, 
and  the  ascent  from  the  underground  den  to  the  sun, 
while  their  eyes  are  weak  and  in  his  presence  are  vainly 
trying  to  look  on  animals  and  plants  and  the  light  of  the 
sun,  but  are  able  to  look  upon  the  divine  images  in  the 
water,  which  are  the  shadows  of  true  existence  (not 
shadows  of  images  cast  by  a  light  of  fire,  which  compared 
with  the  sun  is  only  an  image)  —  this  power  of  elevating 
the  highest  principle  in  the  soul  to  the  contemplation  of 
that  which  is  best  in  existence,  with  which  we  may  com¬ 
pare  the  raising  of  the  most  luminous  of  the  senses  to  the 
sight  of  that  which  is  brightest  in  the  visible  world  —  this 
power  is  given,  as  I  was  saying,  by  all  that  study  and  pur¬ 
suit  of  the  arts  which  has  been  described. 

I  agree  in  what  you  are  saying,  he  replied,  which  may 
be  hard  to  believe,  yet,  from  another  point  of  view,  is 
harder  still  to  deny.  But  whether  denied  or  not,  let  us 
assume  all  this,  which  may  be  the  theme  of  many  another 
discussion ;  and  now  proceed  at  once  from  the  prelude  or 
preamble  to  the  chief  strain,  and  describe  that  in  like  man¬ 
ner.  Say,  then,  what  is  the  nature  and  what  are  the  divi¬ 
sions  of  dialectic,  and  what  are  the  paths  which  lead  thither  \ 
for  these  paths  will  also  lead  to  our  final  rest. 

Dear  Glaucon,  I  said,  you  will  not  be  able  to  follow  me 
here,  though  I  would  do  my  best,  and  you  should  behold 
not  an  image  only  but  the  absolute  truth,  according  to  my 
notion.  Although  I  am  not  confident  that  I  could  tell  you 
the  exact  truth,  I  am  certain  that  you  would  behold  some¬ 
thing  like  the  truth. 

Doubtless,  he  replied. 

But  I  must  add,  that  the  power  of  dialectic  alone  can 
reveal  this,  and  only  to  one  who  is  a  disciple  of  the  previ¬ 
ous  sciences. 

Of  that  assertion  you  may  be  as  certain  as  of  the  last. 

And  certainly  no  one  will  argue  that  there  is  any  other 
method  or  way  of  comprehending  all  true  existence ;  for 
the  arts  in  general  are  concerned  with  the  wants  or  opin¬ 
ions  of  men,  or  are  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  production 
and  construction,  or  for  the  care  of  such  productions  and 
constructions ;  and  as  to  the  mathematical  arts  which,  as 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  213 


we  were  saying,  have  some  apprehension  of  true  being  — 
geometry  and  the  like  —  they  only  dream  about  being,  but 
never  can  they  behold  the  waking  reality  so  long  as  they 
leave  the  hypotheses  which  they  use  unexamined,  and  are 
unable  to  give  an  account  of  them.  For  when  a  man 
knows  not  his  own  first  principle,  and  when  the  conclusion 
and  intermediate  steps  are  also  constructed  out  of  he 
knows  not  what,  how  can  he  imagine  that  such  a  conven¬ 
tional  statement  will  ever  become  science  ? 

Impossible,  he  said. 

Then  dialectic,  and  dialectic  alone,  goes  directly  to  the 
first  principle  and  is  the  only  science  which  does  away 
with  hypotheses  in  order  to  make  certain  of  them  ;  the  eye 
of  the  soul,  which  is  literally  buried  in  an  outlandish 
slough,  is  by  her  taught  to  look  upwards ;  and  she  uses 
as  handmaids,  in  the  work  of  conversion,  the  sciences 
which  we  have  been  discussing.  Custom  terms  them 
sciences,  but  they  ought  to  have  some  other  name,  imply¬ 
ing  greater  clearness  than  opinion  and  less  clearness  than 
science  :  and  this,  in  our  previous  sketch,  was  called  under¬ 
standing.  But  there  is  no  use  in  our  disputing  about 
names  when  we  have  realities  of  such  importance  to  con¬ 
sider. 

No,  he  said;  any  name  will  do  which  expresses  the 
thought  clearly. 

At  any  rate,  we  are  satisfied,  as  before,  to  have  four 
divisions  ;  two  for  intellect  and  two  for  opinion,  and  to  call 
the  first  division  science,  the  second  understanding,  the 
third  belief,  and  the  fourth  knowledge  of  shadows,  opinion 
being  concerned  with  becoming,  and  intellect  with  being; 
and  so  to  make  a  proportion  — 

As  being  :  becoming  : :  pure  intellect  :  opinion. 

As  science  :  belief  : :  understanding  :  knowledge  of  shadows. 

But  let  us  leave  the  further  distribution  and  division  of  the 
objects  of  opinion  and  of  intellect,  which  will  be  a  long 
enquiry,  many  times  longer  than  this  has  been. 

As  far  as  I  understand,  he  said,  I  agree. 

And  do  you  also  agree,  I  said,  in  describing  the  dialec¬ 
tician  as  one  who  has  a  conception  of  the  essence  of  each 
thing  ?  And  may  he  who  is  unable  to  acquire  and  impart 


dialectic, 
alone,  deals 
with  ideas, 
with  truth. 


Dialectic 
forms  the 
culmination 
of  the  edu¬ 
cation  of  the 
guardian 
class  —  of 
philoso¬ 
phers. 


214  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

this  conception,  in  whatever  degree  he  fails,  in  that  degree 
also  be  said  to  fail  in  intelligence  ?  Will  you  admit  that  ? 

Yes,  he  said ;  how  can  I  deny  it  ? 

And  you  would  say  the  same  of  the  conception  of  the 
good?  Until  a  person  is  able  to  abstract  and  define  the 
idea  of  good,  and  unless  he  can  run  the  gauntlet  of  all 
objections,  and  is  ready  to  disprove  them,  not  by  appeals 
to  opinion,  but  to  true  existence,  never  faltering  at  any 
step  of  the  argument  —  unless  he  can  do  all  this,  you 
would  say  that  he  knows  neither  absolute  good  nor  any 
other  good ;  he  apprehends  only  a  shadow,  which  is  given 
by  opinion  and  not  by  knowledge;  —  dreaming  and  slum¬ 
bering  in  this  life,  before  he  is  well  awake  here,  he  arrives 
at  the  world  below,  and  has  his  final  quietus. 

In  all  that  I  should  most  certainly  agree  with  you. 

And  surely  you  would  not  have  the  children  of  your 
ideal  State,  whom  you  are  nurturing  and  educating  —  if 
the  ideal  ever  becomes  a  reality  —  you  would  not  allow  the 
future  rulers  to  be  like  posts,  having  no  reason  in  them, 
and  yet  to  be  set  in  authority  over  the  highest  matters  ? 

Certainly  not. 

Then  you  will  enact  that  they  shall  have  such  an  educa¬ 
tion  as  will  enable  them  to  attain  the  greatest  skill  in  ask¬ 
ing  and  answering  questions  ? 

Yes,  he  said,  I  will,  with  your  help. 

Dialectic,  then,  as  you  will  agree,  is  the  coping-stone  of 
the  sciences,  and  is  placed  over  them  ;  no  other  science 
can  be  placed  higher  —  the  nature  of  knowledge  can  no 
further  go  ? 

I  agree,  he  said. 

But  to  whom  we  are  to  assign  these  studies,  and  in  what 
way  they  are  to  be  assigned,  is  a  question  which  remains 
to  be  considered. 

Yes,  plainly. 

You  remember,  I  said,  how  the  rulers  were  chosen  before  ? 

Certainly,  he  said. 

The  same  natures  must  still  be  chosen,  and  the  prefer¬ 
ence  again  given  to  the  surest  and  the  bravest,  and,  if  pos¬ 
sible,  to  the  fairest ;  and,  having  noble  and  manly  tempers, 
they  should  also  have  the  natural  gifts  which  will  facili¬ 
tate  their  education. 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  215 

And  what  are  they  ? 

Such  gifts  as  keenness  and  ready  powers  of  acquisition ; 
for  the  mind  more  often  faints  from  the  severity  of  study 
than  from  the  severity  of  gymnastics :  the  toil  is  more 
entirely  the  mind’s  own,  and  is  not  shared  with  the  body. 

Very  true,  he  replied. 

Further,  he  of  whom  we  are  in  search  should  have  a 
good  memory,  and  be  an  unwearied  solid  man  who  is  a 
lover  of  labour  in  any  line,  or  he  will  never  be  able  to 
undergo  the  double  toil  and  trouble  of  body  and  mind. 

Certainly,  he  said ;  he  must  have  natural  gifts. 

The  mistake  at  present  is,  that  those  who  study  philoso¬ 
phy  have  no  vocation,  and  this,  as  I  was  before  saying,  is 
the  reason  why  she  has  fallen  into  disrepute :  her  true 
sons  should  study  her  and  not  bastards. 

How  do  you  mean  ? 

In  the  first  place,  her  votary  should  not  have  a  lame  or 
one-legged  industry  —  I  mean,  that  he  should  not  be  half 
industrious  and  half  idle :  as,  for  example,  when  a  man  is 
a  lover  of  gymnastic  and  hunting,  and  all  other  bodily 
exercises,  but  a  hater  rather  than  a  lover  of  the  labour  of 
learning  or  hearing  or  enquiring.  Or  he  may  have  the 
other  sort  of  lameness,  and  the  love  of  labour  may  take 
an  opposite  form,  and  the  man  may  be  lame  in  another 
way. 

Certainly,  he  said. 

And  as  to  truth,  I  said,  is  not  a  soul  equally  to  be 
deemed  halt  and  lame  which  hates  voluntary  falsehood 
and  is  extremely  indignant  at  himself  and  others  when 
they  tell  lies,  but  is  patient  of  involuntary  falsehood,  and 
does  not  mind  wallowing  like  a  swinish  beast  in  the  mire 
of  ignorance,  and  has  no  shame  at  being  detected  ? 

To  be  sure. 

And,  again,  as  to  temperance  and  courage  and  mag¬ 
nanimity,  and  every  other  virtue,  should  they  not  discern 
between  the  ways  of  the  true  son  and  of  the  bastard  ? 
for  wherever  States  and  individuals  fail  in  discrimination, 
they  unconsciously  make  a  friend  or  perhaps  a  ruler  of  one 
who  is  in  a  figure  a  lame  man  or  a  bastard,  from  a  defect 
in  some  one  of  these  qualities. 

That  is  very  true,  he  said. 


The  proper 
period  for 
the  respec¬ 
tive  stages 
of  education. 


Education  of 
children  ; 


216  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

All  these  things,  then,  will  have  to  be  carefully  consid¬ 
ered,  and  those  whom  we  introduce  to  this  vast  system  of 
education  and  training  must  be  sound  in  limb  and  mind, 
and  then  justice  herself  will  have  nothing  to  say  against 
us,  and  we  shall  be  the  saviours  of  the  State  ;  but,  if  our 
pupils  are  men  of  another  stamp,  the  reverse  will  hap¬ 
pen,  and  we  shall  pour  a  still  greater  flood  of  ridicule  on 
philosophy. 

That  would  be  discreditable. 

Yes,  certainly,  I  said ;  and  yet,  perhaps,  in  thus  turning 
jest  into  earnest  I  am  equally  ridiculous. 

In  what  respect  ? 

I  had  forgotten,  I  said,  that  we  were  not  in  earnest,  and 
spoke  with  too  much  excitement.  For  when  I  saw  phi¬ 
losophy  trampled  under  foot  of  men  I  could  not  help  feel¬ 
ing  a  sort  of  indignation  at  the  authors  of  her  disgrace  : 
and  my  anger  made  me  vehement. 

Indeed !  I  did  not  observe  that  you  were  more  vehe¬ 
ment  than  was  right. 

But  I  felt  that  I  was.  And  now  let  me  remind  you  that, 
although  in  our  former  selection  we  chose  old  men,  we 
must  not  do  so  in  this.  Solon  was  under  a  delusion  when 
he  said  that  a  man  as  he  is  growing  older  may  learn  many 
things  —  for  he  can  no  more  learn  than  he  can  run ;  youth 
is  the  time  of  toil. 

Very  true. 

And,  therefore,  calculation  and  geometry  and  all  the 
other  elements  of  instruction,  which  are  a  preparation  for 
dialectic,  should  be  presented  to  the  mind  in  childhood ; 
not,  however,  under  any  notion  of  forcing  them. 

Why  not  ? 

Because  a  freeman  ought  to  be  a  freeman  in  the  acqui¬ 
sition  of  knowledge.  Bodily  exercise,  when  compulsory, 
does  no  harm ;  but  knowledge  which  is  acquired  under 
compulsion  has  no  hold  on  the  mind. 

Very  true. 

Then,  my  good  friend,  I  said,  do  not  use  compulsion, 
but  let  early  education  be  a  sort  of  amusement ;  you  will 
then  be  better  able  to  find  out  the  natural  bent. 

You  are  right  there. 

Do  you  remember  our  saying  that  the  children,  too, 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  2 1  7 


must  be  taken  to  see  the  battle  on  horseback  ;  and  that 
if  there  were  no  danger  they  might  be  led  close  up  and, 
like  young  hounds,  have  a  taste  of  blood  given  them  ? 

Yes,  I  remember. 

The  same  practice  may  be  followed,  I  said,  in  other 
things  —  labours,  lessons,  dangers  —  and  he  who  is  most 
at  home  in  all  of  them  ought  to  be  enrolled  in  a  select 
number. 

At  what  age  ? 

At  the  age  when  the  necessary  gymnastics  are  over : 
the  period  whether  of  two  or  three  years  which  passes  in 
this  sort  of  training  is  useless  for  any  other  purpose ;  for 
sleep  and  exercise  are  unpropitious  to  learning ;  and  the 
trial  of  who  is  first  in  gymnastic  exercises  is  one  of  the 
most  important  tests  to  which  they  are  subjected. 

Certainly,  he  replied. 

After  that  time  those  who  are  selected  from  the  class  of 
twenty  years  old  will  be  promoted  to  higher  honour,  and 
the  sciences  which  they  learned  without  any  order  in  their 
early  education  will  now  be  brought  together,  and  they 
will  be  able  to  see  the  natural  relationship  of  them  to  one 
another  and  to  true  being. 

Yes,  he  said,  that  is  the  only  kind  of  knowledge  which 
is  everlasting. 

Yes,  I  said;  and  the  capacity  for  such  knowledge  is 
the  great  criterion  of  dialectical  talent :  the  comprehensive 
mind  is  always  the  dialectical. 

I  agree  with  you,  he  said. 

These,  I  said,  are  the  points  which  you  must  consider ; 
and  those  who  have  most  of  this  comprehension,  and  who 
are  most  steadfast  in  their  learning,  and  in  their  military 
and  other  public  duties,  when  they  arrive  at  the  age  of 
thirty  will  have  to  be  chosen  by  you  out  of  the  select  class, 
and  elevated  to  higher  honour ;  and  you  will  have  to  prove 
them  by  the  help  of  dialectic,  in  order  to  learn  which  of 
them  is  able  to  give  up  the  use  of  sight  and  other  senses, 
and  in  company  with  truth  to  attain  absolute  being.  And 
here,  my  friend,  great  caution  is  required. 

Why  great  caution  ? 

Do  you  not  remark,  I  said,  how  great  the  evil  is  which 
dialectic  has  introduced  ? 


after  twenty 
years  of  age, 
devoted  to 
study  of  the 
sciences. 


Dialectic 
studied  from 
thirty  to 
thirty-five. 


2i  8  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

What  evil  ?  he  said. 

The  lawlessness  of  which  the  professors  of  the  art  are 
full. 

Very  true,  he  said. 

Do  you  think  that  there  is  anything  unnatural  in  their 
case  ?  or  may  I  ask  you  to  make  some  allowance  for  them  ? 

What  sort  of  allowance  ? 

I  want  you,  I  said,  by  way  of  parallel,  to  imagine  a  sup¬ 
posititious  son  who  is  brought  up  in  great  wealth ;  he  is 
one  of  a  large  and  numerous  family,  and  has  many  flat¬ 
terers.  When  grown  up  he  learns  that  his  alleged  are 
not  his  real  parents ;  but  who  the  real  are  he  is  unable  to 
discover.  Can  you  guess  how  he  will  be  likely  to  behave 
towards  his  flatterers  and  his  supposed  parents,  first  of  all 
during  the  period  when  he  is  ignorant  of  the  false  relation, 
and  then  again  when  he  knows  ?  Or  shall  I  guess  for 
you  ? 

If  you  please. 

Then  I  guess,  that  while  he  is  ignorant  of  the  truth  he 
will  be  likely  to  honour  his  father  and  his  mother  and  his 
supposed  relations  more  than  the  flatterers ;  he  will  be 
less  willing  to  see  them  in  want,  or  to  do  any  violence 
to  them,  or  say  anything  evil  of  them,  and  he  will  be  less 
willing  to  disobey  them  in  important  matters. 

He  will. 

But  when  he  has  made  the  discovery,  I  should  imagine 
that  he  would  diminish  his  honour  and  regard  for  them,  and 
would  become  more  devoted  to  the  flatterers ;  their  influ¬ 
ence  over  him  would  greatly  increase ;  he  would  now  live 
after  their  ways,  and  openly  associate  with  them,  and,  un¬ 
less  he  were  of  an  unusually  good  disposition,  he  would 
think  no  more  of  his  parents  or  other  supposed  friends. 

Well,  all  that  is  extremely  probable.  But  how  is  the 
image  applicable  to  the  disciples  of  philosophy  ? 

In  this  way :  you  know  that  there  are  certain  principles 
about  justice  and  honour,  which  were  taught  us  in  child¬ 
hood,  and  under  their  parental  authority  we  have  been 
brought  up,  obeying  and  valuing  them. 

That  is  true. 

There  are  also  opposite  maxims  and  habits  of  pleasure 
which  flatter  and  attract  our  soul,  but  do  not  influence  those 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  219 

who  have  any  sense  of  right,  and  they  continue  to  obey 
and  value  the  maxims  of  their  fathers. 

True. 

Now,  when  a  man  is  in  this  state,  and  the  questioning 
spirit  asks  what  is  fair  or  honourable,  and  he  answers  as 
the  legislator  has  taught  him,  and  then  arguments  come 
again  and  again  and  refute  his  words,  and  he  is  driven 
into  believing  that  nothing  is  fair  any  more  than  foul,  or 
just  and  good  any  more  than  the  opposite,  and  the  same 
of  all  his  time-honoured  notions,  do  you  think  that  he  will 
still  obey  and  value  them  ? 

Impossible. 

And  when  he  ceases  to  think  them  honourable  and 
natural  as  heretofore,  and  he  fails  to  discover  the  true, 
can  he  be  expected  to  pursue  any  life  other  than  that 
which  flatters  his  desires  ? 

He  cannot. 

And  from  being  a  keeper  of  the  law  he  is  converted 
into  a  breaker  of  it  ? 

Unquestionably. 

Now  all  this  is  very  natural  in  students  of  philosophy 
such  as  I  have  described,  and  also,  as  I  was  just  now  say¬ 
ing,  most  excusable. 

Yes,  he  said;  and,  I  may  add,  pitiable. 

Therefore,  that  your  feelings  may  not  be  moved  to  pity 
about  our  citizens  who  are  thirty  years  of  age,  every  care 
must  be  taken  in  introducing  them  to  dialectic. 

Certainly. 

There  is  a  danger  lest  they  should  taste  the  dear  delight 
too  early ;  for  young  men,  as  you  may  have  observed, 
when  they  first  get  the  taste  in  their  mouths,  argue  for 
amusement,  and  are  always  contradicting  and  refuting 
others  in  imitation  of  those  who  refute  them ;  like  puppy- 
dogs,  they  delight  to  tear  and  pull  at  all  who  come  near 
them. 

Yes,  he  said,  there  is  nothing  of  which  they  are  fonder. 

And  when  they  have  made  many  conquests  and  received 
defeats  at  the  hands  of  many,  they  violently  and  speedily 
get  into  a  way  of  not  believing  anything  that  they  believed 
before,  and  hence,  not  only  they,  but  philosophy  gener¬ 
ally,  has  a  bad  name  with  the  rest  of  the  world. 


Danger  in 
too  early 
study  of 
dialectic. 


220  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


A  period  of 
active  politi¬ 
cal  service 
should 
follow  the 
training  in 
dialectic. 


This  to  last 
until  the 
fiftieth  year 
of  age. 


Too  true,  he  said. 

But  when  a  man  begins  to  get  older,  he  will  no  longer 
be  guilty  of  such  insanity ;  he  will  imitate  the  dialectician 
who  is  seeking  for  truth,  and  not  the  eristic,  who  is  con¬ 
tradicting  for  the  sake  of  amusement;  and  the  greater 
moderation  of  his  character  will  increase  instead  of  dimin¬ 
ishing  the  honour  of  the  pursuit. 

Very  true,  he  said. 

And  did  we  not  make  special  provision  for  this,  when 
we  said  that  the  disciples  of  philosophy  were  to  be 
orderly  and  steadfast,  not,  as  now,  any  chance  aspirant 
or  intruder? 

Very  true. 

Suppose,  I  said,  that  the  study  of  philosophy  be  con¬ 
tinued  diligently  and  earnestly  and  exclusively  for  twice 
the  number  of  years  which  were  passed  in  bodily  exercise 
—  will  that  be  enough  ? 

Would  you  say  six  or  four  years  ?  he  asked. 

Say  five  years,  I  replied ;  at  the  end  of  that  time  they 
must  be  sent  down  into  the  den  and  compelled  to  hold 
any  military  or  other  office  which  young  men  are  qualified 
to  hold  :  in  this  way  they  will  get  their  experience  of  life, 
and  there  will  be  an  opportunity  of  trying  whether,  when 
they  are  drawn  all  manner  of  ways  by  temptation,  they 
will  stand  firm  or  flinch. 

And  how  long  is  this  stage  of  their  lives  to  last  ? 

Fifteen  years,  I  answered  ;  and  when  they  have  reached 
fifty  years  of  age,  then  let  those  who  still  survive  and  have 
distinguished  themselves  in  every  deed  and  in  all  knowl¬ 
edge  come  at  last  to  their  consummation  :  the  time  has 
now  arrived  at  which  they  must  raise  the  eye  of  the  soul 
to  the  universal  light  which  lightens  all  things,  and  behold 
the  absolute  good ;  for  that  is  the  pattern  according  to 
which  they  are  to  order  the  State  and  the  lives  of  indi¬ 
viduals,  and  the  remainder  of  their  own  lives  also,  making 
philosophy  their  chief  pursuit ;  but,  when  their  turn  comes, 
toiling  also  at  politics  and  rulihg  for  the  public  good,  not 
as  if  they  were  doing  some  great  thing,  but  of  necessity ; 
and  when  they  have  brought  up  others  like  themselves  and 
left  them  in  their  place  to  be  governors  of  the  State,  then 
they  will  depart  to  the  Islands  of  the  Blest  and  dwell 


Educational  Theory  .  Philosophical  View  221 

there ;  and  the  city  will  give  them  public  memorials  and 
sacrifices  and  honour  them,  if  the,  Pythian  oracle  consent, 
as  demigods,  and  at  any  rate  as  blessed  and  divine. 

You  are  a  sculptor,  Socrates,  and  have  made  statues  of 
our  governors  quite  faultless. 

Yes,  I  said,  Glaucon,  and  of  our  governesses  too;  for 
you  must  not  suppose  that  what  I  have  been  saying  applies 
to  men  only  and  not  to  women  as  far  as  their  natures  can 
go. 

There  you  are  right,  he  said,  if,  as  we  described,  they  are 
to  have  all  things  in  common  with  the  men. 

Well,  I  said,  and  you  would  agree  (would  you  not  ?)  that 
what  has  been  said  about  the  State  and  the  government  is 
not  a  mere  dream,  and  although  difficult  not  impossible,  but 
only  possible  in  the  way  which  has  been  supposed ;  that  is 
to  say,  when  the  true  philosopher  kings,  one  or  more  of 
them,  are  born  in  a  State,  despising  the  honours  of  this 
present  world  which  they  deem  mean  and  worthless,  above 
all  esteeming  right  and  the  honour  that  springs  from  right, 
and  regarding  justice  as  the  greatest  and  most  necessary 
of  all  things,  whose  ministers  they  are,  and  whose  princi¬ 
ples  will  be  exalted  by  them  when  they  set  in  order  their 
own  city  ? 

How  will  they  proceed  ? 

They  will  begin  by  sending  out  into  the  country  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  city  who  are  more  than  ten  years  old, 
and  will  take  possession  of  their  children,  who  will  be  unaf¬ 
fected  by  the  habits  of  their  parents ;  they  will  then  train 
them  in  their  own  habits  and  laws,  that  is  to  say,  in  those 
which  we  have  given  them  :  and  in  this  way  the  State  and 
constitution  of  which  we  were  speaking  will  soonest  and 
most  easily  succeed,  and  the  nation  which  has  such  a  con¬ 
stitution  will  be  most  benefited. 

Yes,  that  will  be  the  best  way.  And  I  think,  Socrates, 
that  you  have  very  well  described  how,  if  ever,  such  a  con¬ 
stitution  might  come  into  being. 

And  have  we  not  said  enough  of  the  State,  and  of  the 
man  who  corresponds  to  the  State,  for  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  seeing  how  we  shall  describe  him  ? 

There  is  no  difficulty,  he  replied,  and  I  say  with  you, 
enough. 


The  ideal 
state  to  be 
realized 
through 
education. 


Nature  of 
education. 


222  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 
Selections  from  the  Laws  of  Plato 

PERSONS  OF  THE  DIALOGUE 

An  Athenian  Stranger.  Cleinias,  a  Cretan. 

Megillus,  a  Lacedaemonian. 


BOOK  II 

******* 

(653-660.) 

Ath.  Let  me  once  more  recall  our  doctrine  of  right 
education ;  which,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  depends  on  the 
due  regulations  of  convivial  intercourse. 

Cle.  You  talk  rather  grandly. 

Ath.  Pleasure  and  pain  I  maintain  to  be  the  first  per¬ 
ceptions  of  children,  and  I  say  that  they  are  the  forms  under 
which  virtue  and  vice  are  originally  present  to  them.  As 
to  wisdom  and  true  and  fixed  opinions,  happy  is  the  man 
who  acquires  them,  even  when  declining  in  years ;  and  he 
who  possesses  them,  and  the  blessings  which  are  contained 
in  them,  is  a  perfect  man.  Now,  I  mean  by  education  that 
training  which  is  given  by  suitable  habits  to  the  first  instincts 
of  virtue  in  children  ;  —  when  pleasure,  and  friendship,  and 
pain,  and  hatred,  are  rightly  implanted  in  souls  not  yet  capa¬ 
ble  of  understanding  the  nature  of  them,  and  who  find 
them,  after  they  have  attained  reason,  to  be  in  harmony 
with  her.  This  harmony  of  the  soul,  when  perfected,  is 
virtue ;  but  the  particular  training  in  respect  to  pleasure 
and  pain,  which  leads  you  always  to  hate  what  you  ought 
to  hate,  and  love  what  you  ought  to  love,  from  the  begin¬ 
ning  to  the  end,  may  be  separated  off ;  and,  in  my  view, 
will  be  rightly  called  education. 

Cle.  I  think,  Stranger,  that  you  are  quite  right  in  all 
that  you  have  said  and  are  saying  about  education. 

Ath.  I  am  glad  to  hear  that  you  agree  with  me ;  for, 
indeed,,  the  true  discipline  of  pleasure  and  pain  which, 
when  rightly  ordered,  is  a  principle  of  education,  has  been 
often  relaxed  and  corrupted  in  human  life.  And  the  Gods, 
pitying  the  toils  which  our  race  is  born  to  undergo,  have 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  223 


appointed  holy  festivals,  in  which  men  alternate  rest  with 
labour;  and  have  given  them  the  Muses  and  Apollo  the 
leader  of  the  Muses,  and  Dionysus,  to  be  partners  in  their 
revels,  that  they  may  improve  what  education  they  have, 
at  the  festivals  of  the  Gods  and  by  their  aid.  I  should  like 
to  know  whether  a  common  saying  is  true  to  nature  or  not. 
For  what  men  say  is  that  the  young  of  all  creatures  cannot 
be  quiet  in  their  bodies  or  in  their  voices ;  they  are  always 
wanting  to  move,  and  cry  out;  at  one  time  leaping  and 
skipping,  and  overflowing  with  sportiveness  and  delight  at 
something,  and  then  again  uttering  all  sorts  of  cries.  But, 
whereas  other  animals  have  no  perception  of  order  or  dis¬ 
order  in  their  movements,  that  is,  of  rhythm  or  harmony, 
as  they  are  called,  to  us,  the  Gods,  who,  as  we  say,  have 
been  appointed  to  be  our  partners  in  the  dance,  have  given 
the  pleasurable  sense  of  harmony  and  rhythm ;  and  so 
they  stir  us  into  life,  and  we  follow  them  and  join  hands 
with  one  another  in  dances  and  songs  ;  and  these  they 
call  choruses,  which  is  a  term  naturally  expressive  of 
cheerfulness.  Shall  we  begin,  then,  with  the  acknowledg¬ 
ment  that  education  is  first  given  through  Apollo  and  the 
Muses  ?  What  do  you  say  ? 

Cle.  I  assent. 

Ath.  And  the  uneducated  is  he  who  has  not  been 
trained  in  the  chorus,  and  the  educated  is  he  who  has 
been  well  trained  ? 

Cle.  Certainly. 

Ath.  And  the  chorus  is  made  up  of  two  parts,  dance 
and  song  ? 

Cle.  True. 

Ath.  Then  he  who  is  well  educated  will  be  able  to  sing 
and  dance  well  ? 

Cle.  I  suppose  that  he  will. 

Ath.  Let  us  see  ;  what  are  we  saying  ? 

Cle.  What  ? 

Ath.  He  sings  well  and  dances  well ;  now  must  we  add 
that  he  sings  what  is  good  and  dances  what  is  good  ? 

Cle.  Let  us  make  the  addition. 

Ath.  We  will  suppose  that  he  knows  the  good  to  be 
good,  and  the  bad  to  be  bad,  and  makes  use  of  them  ac¬ 
cordingly  :  which  now  is  the  better  trained  in  dancing  and 


Beginnings 
of  education 
found  in  the 
sense  for 
harmony. 


Music  and 
gymnastic  as 
the  subject- 
matter  of 
education. 


Character  of 
the  music 
and  gym¬ 
nastic  deter¬ 
mine  the 
character  of 
the 

education. 


224  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

music  ;  —  he  who  is  able  to  move  his  body  and  to  use  his 
voice  in  what  is  understood  to  be  the  right  manner,  but  has 
no  delight  in  good  or  hatred  of  evil ;  or  he  who  is  incorrect 
in  gesture  and  voice,  but  is  right  in  his  sense  of  pleasure 
and  pain,  and  welcomes  what  is  good,  and  is  offended  at 
what  is  evil  ? 

Cle.  There  is  a  great  difference,  Stranger,  in  the  two 
kinds  of  education. 

Ath.  If  we  know  what  is  good  in  song  and  dance,  then 
we  know  also  who  is  rightly  educated  and  who  is  unedu¬ 
cated  ;  but  if  not,  then  we  certainly  shall  not  know  wherein 
lies  the  safeguard  of  education,  and  whether  there  is  any  or 
not. 

Cle.  True. 

Ath.  Let  us  follow  the  scent  like  hounds,  and  go  in  pur¬ 
suit  of  beauty  of  figure,  and  melody,  and  song,  and  dance  ;  if 
these  escape  us,  there  will  be  no  use  in  talking  about  true 
education,  whether  Hellenic  or  barbarian. 

Cle.  Yes. 

Ath.  And  what  is  beauty  of  figure,  or  beautiful  melody  ? 
When  a  manly  soul  is  in  trouble,  and  when  a  cowardly  soul 
is  in  a  similar  case,  are  they  likely  to  use  the  same  figures 
and  gestures,  or  to  give  utterance  to  the  same  sounds  ? 

Cle.  How  can  they,  when  the  very  colours  of  their  faces 
differ  ? 

Ath.  Good,  my  friend  ;  I  may  observe,  however,  in  pass¬ 
ing,  that  in  music  there  certainly  are  figures  and  there  are 
melodies :  and  music  is  concerned  with  harmony  and 
rhythm,  so  that  you  may  speak  of  a  melody  or  figure  hav¬ 
ing  rhythm  or  harmony  ;  the  term  is  correct  enough,  but 
you  cannot  speak  correctly,  as  the  masters  of  choruses  have 
a  way  of  talking  metaphorically  of  the  ‘  colour  ’  of  a  mel¬ 
ody  or  figure,  although  you  can  speak  of  the  melodies  or 
figures  of  the  brave  and  the  coward,  praising  the  one  and 
censuring  the  other.  And  not  to  be  tedious,  the  figures 
and  melodies  which  are  expressive  of  virtue  of  soul  or 
body,  or  of  images  of  virtue,  are  without  exception  good, 
and  those  which  are  expressive  of  vice  are  the  reverse  of 
good. 

Cle.  You  are  right  in  calling  upon  us  to  make  that 
division. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  225 

Ath.  But  are  all  of  us  equally  delighted  with  every  sort 
of  dance  ? 

Cle.  Far  otherwise. 

Ath.  And  what,  then,  is  the  cause  of  error  or  division 
among  us  ?  Are  beautiful  things  not  the  same  to  us  all, 
or  are  they  the  same  in  themselves,  but  not  in  our  opinion 
of  them  ?  For  no  one  will  admit  that  forms  of  vice  in  the 
dance  are  more  beautiful  than  forms  of  virtue,  or  that  he 
himself  delights  in  the  forms  of  vice,  and  others  in  a  muse 
of  another  character.  And  yet  most  persons  say,  that  the 
excellence  of  music  is  to  give  pleasure  to  our  souls.  But 
this  is  intolerable  and  blasphemous  ;  there  is,  however,  a 
more  plausible  account  of  the  delusion. 

Cle.  What  is  that  ? 

Ath.  There  is  a  way  of  making  our  likes  and  dislikes 
the  criterion  of  excellence.  Choric  movements  are  imita¬ 
tions  of  manners  occurring  in  various  actions,  chances, 
characters,  — each  particular  is  imitated,  and  those  to  whom 
the  words,  or  songs,  or  dances  are  suited,  either  by  nature 
or  habit  or  both,  cannot  help  feeling  pleasure  in  them  and 
applauding  them,  and  calling  them  beautiful.  But  those 
whose  natures,  or  ways,  or  habits  are  unsuited  to  them,  can¬ 
not  delight  in  them  or  applaud  them,  and  they  call  them 
base.  There  are  others,  again,  whose  natures  are  right 
and  their  habits  wrong,  or  whose  habits  are  right  and  their 
natures  wrong,  and  they  praise  one  thing,  but  are  pleased 
at  another.  For  they  say  that  certain  things  are  pleasant, 
but  not  good.  And  in  the  presence  of  those  whom  they 
think  wise,  they  are  ashamed  of  dancing  and  singing  in  the 
baser  manner,  or  of  deliberately  lending  their  countenance 
to  such  proceedings  ;  and  yet,  they  have  a  secret  pleasure 
in  them. 

Cle.  Very  true. 

Ath.  And  is  any  harm  done  to  the  lover  of  vicious  dances 
or  songs,  or  any  good  done  to  the  approver  of  the  opposite 
sort  of  pleasure  ? 

Cle.  I  think  that  there  is. 

Ath.  ‘  I  think  ’  is  not  the  word,  but  I  would  say,  rather, 

‘  I  am  certain.’  For  must  they  not  have  the  same  effect 
as  when  a  man  is  in  evil  company,  whom  he  likes  and 
approves  rather  than  dislikes,  and  only  censures  them  play- 

Q 


They  are  to 
be  deter¬ 
mined  by 
public  ends, 
not  by  per¬ 
sonal  choice 


Static  ideals 
°f  Egyptian 
education 
praised  as  a 
model. 


226  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

fully  as  if  he  has  a  suspicion  of  his  own  badness  ?  In  that 
case,  he  who  takes  pleasure  in  them  will  surely  become 
like  those  in  whom  he  takes  pleasure,  even  though  he  be 
ashamed  to  praise  them.  And  what  greater  good  or  evil 
can  any  destiny  ever  make  us  undergo  ? 

Cle.  I  know  of  none. 

Ath.  Then  in  a  city  which  has  or  in  future  ages  is  to 
have  good  laws,  and  where  there  is  a  due  regard  to  the 
instruction  and  amusement  which  the  Muses  give,  can  we 
suppose  that  the  poets  are  to  be  allowed  to  teach  in  the 
dance  anything  which  the  poet  himself  likes,  in  the  way  of 
rhythm,  or  melody,  or  words,  to  the  children  and  youth 
of  well-conditioned  parents  ?  Is  he  to  train  his  choruses 
as  he  pleases,  without  reference  to  virtue  or  vice  ? 

Cle.  That  is  surely  quite  unreasonable,  and  is  not  to  be 
thought  of. 

Ath.  And  yet  he  may  do  this  in  almost  any  state  with 
the  exception  of  Egypt. 

Cle.  And  what  are  the  laws  about  music  and  dancing 
in  Egypt  ? 

Ath.  You  will  wonder  when  I  tell  you  :  Long  ago  they 
appear  to  have  recognised  the  very  principle  of  which  we 
are  now  speaking  —  that  their  young  citizens  must  be  ha¬ 
bituated  to  forms  and  strains  of  virtue.  These  they  fixed, 
and  exhibited  the  patterns  of  them  in  their  temples  ;  and  no 
painter  or  artist  is  allowed  to  innovate  upon  them,  or  to 
leave  the  traditional  forms  and  invent  new  ones.  To  this  day, 
no  alteration  is  allowed  either  in  these  arts,  or  in  music  at 
all.  And  you  will  find  that  their  works  of  art  are  painted 
or  moulded  in  the  same  forms  which  they  had  ten  thousand 
years  ago;  —  this  is  literally  true  and  no  exaggeration, — 
their  ancient  paintings  and  sculptures  are  not  a  whit  better 
or  worse  than  the  work  of  to-day,  but  are  made  with  just 
the  same  skill. 

Cle.  How  extraordinary ! 

Ath.  I  should  rather  say,  how  wise  and  worthy  of  a 
great  legislator  !  I  know  that  other  things  in  Egypt  are 
not  so  good.  But  what  I  am  telling  you  about  music  is 
true  and  deserving  of  consideration,  because  showing  that 
a  lawgiver  may  institute  melodies  which  have  a  natural 
truth  and  correctness  without  any  fear  of  failure.  To  do 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  227 


this,  however,  must  be  the  work  of  God,  or  of  a  divine  per¬ 
son  ;  in  Egypt  they  have  a  tradition  that  their  ancient  chants 
are  the  composition  of  the  Goddess  Isis.  And  therefore, 
as  I  was  saying,  if  a  person  can  only  find  in  any  way  the 
natural  melodies,  he  may  confidently  embody  them  in  a 
fixed  and  legal  form.  For  the  love  of  novelty  which  arises 
out  of  pleasure  in  the  new  and  weariness  of  the  old,  has  not 
strength  enough  to  vitiate  the  consecrated  song  and  dance, 
under  the  plea  that  they  have  become  antiquated.  At  any 
rate,  they  are  far  from  being  antiquated  in  Egypt. 

Cle.  Your  arguments  seem  to  prove  your  point. 

Ath.  May  not  the  true  use  of  music  and  choral  festivi¬ 
ties  be  described  as  follows :  we  rejoice  when  we  think 
that  we  prosper,  and  again  we  think  that  we  prosper  when 
we  rejoice  ? 

Cle.  Exactly. 

Ath.  And  when  rejoicing  is  our  good  fortune,  we  are 
unable  to  be  still  ? 

Cle.  True. 

Ath.  Our  young  men  break  forth  into  dancing  and 
singing,  and  we  who  are  their  elders  deem  that  we  are 
fulfilling  our  part  in  life  when  we  look  on  at  them.  Hav¬ 
ing  lost  the  agility  of  youth,  we  delight  in  their  sports  and 
merry-making ;  because  we  love  to  think  of  our  former 
selves,  and  gladly  institute  contests  for  those  who  are  able 
to  awaken  in  us  the  memory  of  what  we  once  were. 

Cle.  Very  true. 

Ath.  People  say  that  we  ought  to  regard  him  as  the 
wisest  of  men,  and  the  winner  of  the  palm,  who  gives  us 
the  greatest  amount  of  pleasure  and  mirth.  For  when 
mirth  is  to  be  the  order  of  the  day,  he  ought  to  be 
honoured  most,  and,  as  I  was  saying,  bear  the  palm,  who 
gives  most  mirth  to  the  greatest  number.  Now  I  want  to 
know  whether  this  is  a  true  way  of  speaking  or  of  acting  ? 

Cle.  Possibly. 

Ath.  But,  my  dear  friend,  let  us  distinguish  between 
different  cases,  and  not  be  hasty  in  forming  a  judgment : 
One  way  of  considering  the  question  will  be  to  imagine  a 
festival  at  which  there  are  entertainments  of  all  sorts, 
including  gymnastic,  musical,  or  equestrian  contests :  the 
citizens  are  assembled,  and  proclamation  is  made  that  any 


Use  of  music 
and  the 
dance. 


How  the 
criterion  of 
excellencies 
are  to  be 
determined. 


Censors  of 
music 

should  lead, 
not  follow, 
public 
opinion. 


228  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

one  who  likes  may  enter  the  lists,  and  that  he  is  to  bear 
the  palm  who  gives  the  most  pleasure  to  the  spectators  — 
there  is  to  be  no  regulation  about  the  manner  how ;  but  he 
who  is  most  successful  in  giving  pleasure  is  to  be  crowned 
victor,  and  is  deemed  to  be  the  pleasantest  of  the  candi¬ 
dates  :  What  is  likely  to  be  the  result  of  such  a  procla¬ 
mation  ? 

Cle.  In  what  respect  ? 

Ath.  There  would  be  various  exhibitions  :  the  Homeric 
bard  would  exhibit  a  rhapsody,  another  a  performance  on 
the  lute  ;  one  would  have  a  tragedy,  and  another  a  comedy. 
Nor  would  there  be  anything  astonishing  in  some  one 
imagining  that  he  could  gain  the  prize  by  exhibiting  a 
puppet-show.  Suppose  these  competitors  to  meet,  and 
not  these  only,  but  innumerable  others  as  well,  can  you 
tell  me  who  ought  to  be  the  victor  ? 

Cle.  I  do  not  see  how  I  can  answer  you,  unless  I  my¬ 
self  hear  the  several  competitors ;  the  question  is  absurd. 

Ath.  Well,  then,  if  neither  of  you  can  answer,  shall  I 
answer  this  question  which  you  deem  absurd  ? 

Cle.  By  all  means. 

Ath.  If  very  small  children  are  to  determine  the  ques¬ 
tion,  they  will  decide  for  the  puppet-show  ? 

Cle.  Of  course. 

Ath.  The  older  children  will  be  advocates  of  comedy ; 
educated  women,  and  young  men,  and  people  in  general, 
will  favour  tragedy. 

Cle.  Very  likely. 

Ath.  And  I  believe  that  we  old  men  would  have  the 
greatest  pleasure  in  hearing  a  rhapsodist  recite  well  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  or  one  of  the  Hesiodic  poems,  and 
would  award  the  victory  to  him  ?  But,  who  would  really 
be  the  victor  ?  that  is  the  question. 

Cle.  Yes. 

Ath.  Clearly  you  and  I  will  be  compelled  to  reply  that 
the  old  men  are  right ;  their  way  of  thinking  is  far  better 
than  any  other  which  now  prevails  in  the  world. 

Cle.  Certainly. 

Ath.  Thus  far  I  too  should  agree  with  the  many,  that 
the  excellence  of  music  is  to  be  measured  by  pleasure. 
But  the  pleasure  must  not  be  that  of  chance  persons ;  the 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  229 

fairest  music  is  that  which  delights  the  best  and  best  edu¬ 
cated,  and  especially  that  which  delights  the  one  man  who 
is  pre-eminent  in  virtue  and  education.  And  therefore  the 
judges  will  require  virtue  —  they  must  possess  wisdom  and 
also  courage ;  for  the  true  judge  ought  not  to  learn  from 
the  theatre,  nor  ought  he  to  be  panic-stricken  at  the 
clamour  of  the  many  and  his  own  incapacity ;  nor  again, 
knowing  the  truth,  ought  he  through  cowardice  and  un¬ 
manliness  carelessly  to  deliver  a  lying  judgment,  out  of  the 
very  same  lips  which  have  just  appealed  to  the  Gods 
before  he  judged.  He  is  sitting  not  as  the  disciple  of  the 
theatre,  but,  in  his  proper  place,  as  their  instructor,  and 
he  ought  to  be  the  enemy  of  all  pandering  to  the  pleasure 
of  the  spectators.  The  ancient  and  common  custom  of 
Hellas,  which  still  prevails  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  did  cer¬ 
tainly  leave  the  judgment  to  the  body  of  spectators,  who 
determined  the  victor  by  the  show  of  hands ;  yet  this  cus¬ 
tom  has  been  the  destruction  of  the  poets ;  —  for  they  are 
now  in  the  habit  of  composing  with  a  view  to  please  the 
bad  taste  of  their  judges,  and  the  result  is  that  the  specta¬ 
tors  instruct  themselves,  which  has  been  the  ruin  of  the 
theatre;  —  when  they  ought  to  be  having  characters  put 
before  them  better  than  their  own,  and  so  receiving  a 
higher  pleasure,  they  themselves  make  them  inferior. 
Now  what  is  the  inference  to  be  deduced  from  all  this  ? 
Shall  I  tell  you  ? 

Cle.  What  ? 

Ath.  The  inference  at  which  we  arrive  for  the  third 
or  fourth  time  is,  that  education  is  the  constraining  and 
directing  of  youth  towards  that  right  reason,  which  the 
law  affirms,  and  which  the  experience  of  the  best  of  our 
elders  has  agreed  to  be  truly  right.  In  order,  then,  that 
the  soul  of  the  child  may  not  be  habituated  to  feel  joy  and 
sorrow  in  a  manner  at  variance  with  the  law,  and  those 
who  obey  the  law,  but  may  rather  follow  the  law  and 
rejoice  and  sorrow  at  the  same  things  as  the  aged  —  in 
order,  I  say,  to  produce  this  effect,  songs  appear  to  have 
been  invented,  which  are  really  charms,  and  are  designed 
to  implant  that  harmony  of  which  we  speak.  And, 
because  the  mind  of  the  child  is  incapable  of  enduring  seri¬ 
ous  training,  they  are  called  plays  or  songs,  and  are  per- 


Aims  of 
education 
determined 
by  the 
experience 
of  the  race. 


230  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Education 
identical 
with  music, 
the  dance, 
and  gym¬ 
nastic. 


formed  in  play ;  just  as  when  men  are  sick  and  ailing  in 
their  bodies,  their  attendants  give  them  wholesome  diet  in 
pleasant  meats  and  drinks,  but  unwholesome  diet  in  dis¬ 
agreeable  things,  in  order  that  they  may  learn,  as  they 
ought,  to  like  the  one,  and  to  dislike  the  other.  And  simi¬ 
larly  the  true  legislator  will  persuade,  and,  if  he  cannot 
persuade,  will  compel  the  poet  to  express,  as  he  ought,  by 
fair  and  noble  words,  in  his  rhythms,  the  figures,  and  in 
his  melodies,  the  music  of  temperate  and  brave  and  in 
every  way  good  men.  .  .  .  (672-673.)  The  whole  choral 

art  is  also  in  our  view  the  whole  of  education  ;  and  of  this 
art,  rhythms  and  harmonies,  having  to  do  with  the  voice, 
form  a  part. 

Cle.  Yes. 

Ath.  And  the  movement  of  the  body  and  the  movement 
of  the  voice  have  a  common  form  which  is  rhythm,  but 
they  differ,  in  that  the  one  is  gesture,  and  the  other  song. 

Cle.  Most  true. 

Ath.  And  the  sound  of  the  voice  which  reaches  and 
educates  the  soul,  we  have  ventured  to  term  music. 

Cle.  True. 

Ath.  And  the  movement  of  the  body,  which,  when 
regarded  as  an  amusement,  we  termed  dancing ;  when 
pursued  with  a  view  to  the  improvement  of  the  body, 
according  to  rules  of  art,  may  be  called  gymnastic. 

Cle.  Quite  true. 

Ath.  Music,  which  was  one  half  of  the  choral  art,  may 
be  said  to  have  been  completely  discussed.  Shall  we  pro¬ 
ceed  to  the  other  half  or  not  ?  What  would  you  like  ? 

Cle.  My  good  friend,  when  you  are  talking  with  a 
Cretan  and  Lacedaemonian,  and  we  have  discussed  music 
and  not  gymnastic,  what  answer  are  either  of  us  likely  to 
make  to  you  ? 

Ath.  That  question  is  pretty  much  of  an  answer ;  and 
I  understand  and  accept  what  you  say  both  as  an  answer, 
and  also  as  a  command  to  proceed  with  gymnastic. 

Cle.  You  quite  understand  me  ;  do  as  you  say. 

Ath.  I  will;  and  there  will  be  small  difficulty  in  speak¬ 
ing  intelligibly  to  you  about  a  subject  with  which  both  of 
you  are  far  more  familiar  than  with  music. 

Cle.  That  is  very  true. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  231 


Ath.  Is  not  the  origin  of  gymnastics,  too,  to  be  sought 
in  the  tendency  to  rapid  motion  which  exists  in  all  animals  ; 
man,  as  we  were  saying,  having  attained  the  sense  of 
rhythm,  created  and  invented  dancing ;  and  melody 
arousing  and  awakening  rhythm,  both  united  formed  the 
choral  art  ? 

Cle.  Very  true. 

******* 

BOOK  VII 

******* 

(793-823.) 

Ath.  Up  to  the  age  of  three  years,  whether  of  boy  or 
girl,  if  a  person  strictly  carries  out  our  previous  regulations 
and  makes  them  a  principal  aim,  he  will  do  much  for  the 
advantage  of  the  young  creatures.  But  at  three,  four,  five, 
and  six  years  the  childish  nature  will  require  sports ;  now 
is  the  time  to  get  rid  of  self-will  in  him,  punishing  him, 
not  so  as  to  disgrace  him.  As  we  were  saying  about 
slaves,  that  we  ought  neither  to  punish  them  in  hot  blood 
or  so  as  to  anger  them,  nor  yet  to  leave  them  unpunished 
lest  they  become  self-willed,  a  like  rule  is  to  be  observed 
in  the  case  of  the  free-born.  Children  at  that  age  have 
certain  natural  modes  of  amusement  which  they  find  out 
for  themselves  when  they  meet.  And  all  the  children 
who  are  between  the  ages  of  three  and  six  ought  to 
meet  at  the  temples  of  the  villages,  several  families  of  a 
village  uniting  on  one  spot,  and  the  nurses  seeing  that 
the  children  behave  properly  and  orderly,  —  they  them¬ 
selves  and  their  whole  company  being  under  the  care  of 
one  of  the  twelve  women  aforesaid  annually  appointed  out 
of  their  number  by  the  guardians  of  the  law  to  inspect 
and  order  each  company.  Let  the  twelve  be  appointed 
by  the  women  who  have  authority  over  marriage,  one 
out  of  each  tribe  and  all  of  the  same  age ;  and  when 
appointed,  let  them  hold  office  and  go  to  the  temples 
every  day,  punishing  all  offenders,  male  or  female,  who 
are  slaves  or  strangers,  by  the  help  of  some  of  the  public 
servants;  but  if  any  citizen  disputes  the  punishment,  let 


Origin  of 
gymnastic. 


Training  of 
children 
from  three 
to  six. 


232  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Instruction 
to  begin  at 
the  sixth 
year. 


Training  of 
the  hands. 
Ambi¬ 
dexterity. 


her  bring  him  before  the  wardens  of  the  city ;  or,  if  there 
be  no  dispute,  let  her  punish  him  herself.  After  the  age 
of  six  years  the  time  has  arrived  for  the  separation  of  the 
sexes,  —  let  boys  live  with  boys,  and  girls  in  like  manner 
with  girls.  Now  they  must  begin  to  learn  —  the  boys 
going  to  teachers  of  horsemanship  and  the  use  of  the 
bow,  the  javelin,  and  sling;  and  if  they  do  not  object,  let 
women  also  go  to  learn  if  not  to  practise ;  above  all,  they 
ought  to  know  the  use  of  arms ;  for  I  may  note,  that  the 
practice  which  now  almost  universally  prevails  is  due  to 
ignorance. 

Cle.  In  what  respect  ? 

Ath.  In  this  respect,  that  the  right  and  left  hand  are 
supposed  to  differ  by  nature  when  we  use  them ;  whereas 
no  difference  is  found  in  the  use  of  the  feet  and  the  lower 
limbs ;  but  in  the  use  of  the  hands  we  are  in  a  manner 
lame,  by  reason  of  the  folly  of  nurses  and  mothers ;  for 
although  our  several  limbs  are  by  nature  balanced,  we 
create  a  difference  in  them  by  bad  habit.  In  some  cases 
this  is  of  no  consequence,  as,  for  example,  when  we  hold 
the  lyre  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  plectrum  in  the  right, 
but  it  is  downright  folly  to  make  the  same  distinction  in 
other  cases.  The  custom  of  the  Scythians  proves  our 
error ;  for  they  not  only  hold  the  bow  from  them  with  the 
left  hand  and  draw  the  arrow  to  them  with  their  right,  but 
use  either  hand  for  both  purposes.  And  there  are  many 
similar  examples  in  charioteering  and  other  things,  from 
which  we  may  learn  that  those  who  make  the  left  side 
weaker  than  the  right  act  contrary  to  nature.  In  the  case 
of  the  plectrum,  which  is  of  horn  only,  and  similar  instru¬ 
ments,  as  I  was  saying,  it  is  of  no  consequence,  but  makes 
a  great  difference,  and  may  be  of  very  great  importance  to 
the  warrior  who  has  to  use  iron  weapons,  bows  and  javelins, 
and  the  like ;  above  all,  when  in  heavy  armour,  he  has  to 
fight  against  heavy  armour.  And  there  is  a  very  great 
difference  between  one  who  has  learnt  and  one  who  has 
not,  and  between  one  who  has  been  trained  in  gymnastic 
exercises  and  one  who  has  not  been.  For  as  he  who  is 
perfectly  skilled  in  the  Pancratium  or  boxing  or  wrestling, 
is  not  unable  to  fight  from  his  left  side,  and  does  not  limp 
and  draggle  in  confusion  when  his  opponent  makes  him 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  233 


change  his  position,  so  in  heavy-armed  fighting,  and  in  all 
other  things,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  the  like  holds  —  he  who 
has  these  double  powers  of  attack  and  defence  ought  not 
in  any  case  to  leave  them  either  unused  or  untrained ;  and 
if  a  person  had  the  nature  of  Geryon 1  or  Briareus  he 
ought  to  be  able  with  his  hundred  hands  to  throw  a  hun¬ 
dred  darts.  Now,  the  rulers,  male  and  female,  should  see 
to  all  these  things ;  the  women  superintending  the  nursing 
and  amusements  of  the  children,  and  the  men  superintend¬ 
ing  their  education,  that  all  of  them,  boys  and  girls  alike, 
may  be  sound  in  hand  and  foot,  and  may  not,  if  they  can 
help,  spoil  the  gifts  of  nature  by  bad  habits. 

Education  has  two  branches,  —  one  of  gymnastic,  which 
is  concerned  with  the  body,  and  the  other  of  music,  which 
is  designed  for  the  improvement  of  the  soul.  And  gym¬ 
nastic  has  also  two  parts  —  dancing  and  wrestling ;  and 
one  sort  of  dancing  imitates  musical  recitation,  and  aims 
at  preserving  dignity  and  freedom ;  the  other  aims  at  pro¬ 
ducing  health,  agility,  and  beauty  of  the  limbs  and  parts 
of  the  body,  giving  the  proper  flexion  and  extension  to 
each  of  them,  diffusing  and  accompanying  the  harmonious 
motion  of  the  dance  everywhere.  As  regards  wrestling, 
the  tricks  which  Antaeus  and  Cercyon  devised  in  their  sys¬ 
tems  out  of  a  vain  spirit  of  competition,  or  the  tricks  of  box¬ 
ing  which  Epeius  or  Amycus  invented,  are  useless  for  war, 
and  do  not  deserve  to  have  much  said  about  them  ;  but  the 
art  of  wrestling  erect  and  keeping  free  the  neck  and  hands 
and  sides,  working  with  energy  and  constancy,  with  a 
composed  strength,  and  for  the  sake  of  health  —  these  are 
always  useful,  and  are  not  to  be  neglected,  but  to  be 
enjoined  alike  on  masters  and  scholars,  when  we  reach 
that  part  of  legislation  ;  and  we  will  desire  the  one  to  give 
their  instructions  freely,  and  the  others  to  receive  them 
thankfully.  Nor,  again,  must  we  omit  suitable  imitations 
of  war  in  our  dances  ;  in  Crete  there  are  the  armed  sports 
of  the  Curetes,  and  in  Lacedaemon  of  the  Dioscori.  And 
our  virgin  lady,  delighting  in  the  sports  of  the  dance, 


The  two 
branches  of 
education, — 
music  and 
gymnastic. 


Proper 
character  of 
gymnastic. 


1  A  giant  with  three  bodies  and  powerful  wings,  that  dwelt  in  the  island  of 
Erythia,  guarding  a  herd  of  cattle.  It  was  one  of  the  labors  of  Heracles  to 
carry  off  these  cattle  and  slay  Geryon. 


Importance 
of  play  in 
education. 


234  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

thought  it  not  fit  to  dance  with  empty  hands ;  she  must  be 
clothed  in  a  complete  suit  of  armour,  and  in  this  attire  go 
through  the  dance ;  and  youths  and  maidens  should  in 
every  respect  imitate  her  example,  honouring  the  Goddess 
both  with  a  view  to  the  actual  necessities  of  war,  and  to 
festive  amusements :  it  will  be  right  also  for  the  boys  until 
such  time  as  they  go  out  to  war  to  make  processions  and 
supplications  to  the  Gods  in  goodly  array,  armed  and  on 
horseback,  in  dances  and  marches,  fast  or  slow,  offering 
up  prayers  to  the  Gods  and  to  the  sons  of  Gods ;  and  also 
engaging  in  contests  and  preludes  of  contests,  if  at  all, 
with  these  objects.  For  these  sort  of  exercises,  and  no 
others,  are  useful  both  in  peace  and  war,  and  are  beneficial 
both  to  states  and  to  private  houses.  But  other  labours 
and  sports  and  excessive  training  of  the  body  are  unworthy 
of  freemen,  O  Megillus  and  Cleinias. 

I  have  now  completely  described  the  kind  of  gymnastic 
which  I  said  at  first  ought  to  be  described ;  if  you  know 
of  any  better,  will  you  communicate  your  thoughts  ? 

Cle.  It  is  not  easy,  Stranger,  to  put  these  principles  of 
gymnastic  aside  and  to  enunciate  better  ones. 

Ath.  Next  in  order  follow  the  gifts  of  the  Muses  and 
of  Apollo  :  before,  we  fancied  that  we  had  said  all,  and  that 
gymnastic  alone  remained  to  be  discussed;  but  now  we 
see  clearly  what  points  have  been  omitted,  and  should  be 
first  proclaimed;  of  these,  then,  let  us  proceed  to  speak. 

Cle.  By  all  means. 

Ath.  Hear  me  once  more,  although  you  have  heard  me 
say  the  same  before  —  that  caution  must  be  always  exer¬ 
cised,  both  by  the  speaker  and  by  the  hearer,  about  any¬ 
thing  that  is  singular  and  unusual.  For  my  tale  is  one 
which  many  a  man  would  be  afraid  to  tell,  and  yet  I  have 
a  confidence  which  makes  me  go  on. 

Cle.  What  have  you  to  say,  Stranger  ? 

Ath.  I  say  that  in  states  generally  no  one  has  observed 
that  the  plays  of  childhood  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
the  permanence  or  want  of  permanence  in  legislation.  For 
when  plays  are  ordered  with  a  view  to  children  having  the 
same  plays  and  amusing  themselves  after  the  same  man¬ 
ner,  and  finding  delight  in  the  same  playthings,  the  more 
solemn  institutions  of  the  state  are  allowed  to  remain  undis- 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  235 

turbed.  Whereas  if  sports  are  disturbed  and  innovations 
are  made  in  them,  and  they  constantly  change,  and  the 
young  never  speak  of  their  having  the  same  likings,  or  the 
same  established  notions  of  good  and  bad  taste,  either  in 
the.  bearing  of  their  bodies  or  in  their  dress,  but  he  who 
devises  something  new  and  out  of  the  way  in  figures  and 
colours  and  the  like  is  held  in  special  honour,  we  may  truly 
say  that  no  greater  evil  can  happen  in  a  state;  for  he  who 
changes  the  sports  is  secretly  changing  the  manners  of  the 
young,  and  making  the  old  to  be  dishonoured  among  them 
and  the  new  to  be  honoured.  And  I  affirm  that  there  is 
nothing  which  is  a  greater  injury  to  all  states  than  saying 
or  thinking  thus.  Will  you  hear  me  tell  how  great  I  deem 
it  to  be  ? 

Cle.  You  mean  the  evil  of  blaming  antiquity  in  states  ? 

Ath.  Exactly. 

Cle.  If  you  are  speaking  of  that,  you  will  find  in  us 
hearers  who  are  disposed  to  receive  what  you  say  not 
unfavourably  but  most  favourably. 

Ath.  I  should  expect  so. 

Cle.  Proceed. 

Ath.^  Well,  then,  let  us  give  all  the  greater  heed  to  one 
another’s  words.  The  argument  says  that  to  change  from 
anything  except  the  bad  is  the  most  dangerous  of  all 
things ;  this  is  true  in  the  case  of  the  seasons  and  of  the 
winds,,  in  the  management  of  our  bodies  and  the  habits  of 
our  minds  —  true  of  all  things  except,  as  I  said  before,  of 
the  bad.  He  who  looks  at  the  constitution  of  individuals 
accustomed  to  eat  any  sort  of  meat  or  drink  any  drink  or 
do  any  work  which  they  could  get,  may  see  that  they  are 
at  first  disordered  but  afterwards,  as  time  goes  on,  their 
bodies  grow  adapted  to  them,  and  they  learn  to  know  and 
like  variety,  and  have  good  health  and  enjoyment  of  life; 
and  if  ever  afterwards  they  are  confined  again  to  a  supe¬ 
rior  diet,  at  first  they  are  troubled  with  disorders,  and  with 
difficulty  become  habituated  to  their  new  food.  A  similar 
principle  we  may  imagine  to  hold  good  about  the  minds  of 
men  and  the  nature  of  their  souls.  For  when  they  have 
been  brought  up  in  certain  laws,  which  by  some  Divine 
Providence  have  remained  unchanged  during  long  ages, 
so  that  no  one  has  any  memory  or  tradition  of  their  ever 


Innovations 
to  be 
avoided. 


Importance 
of  reverence 
for  antiquity. 


How 

secured  by 
the 

Egyptians. 


236  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

having  been  otherwise  than  they  are,  then  every  one  is 
afraid  and  ashamed  to  change  that  which  is  established. 
The  legislator  must  somehow  find  a  way  of  implanting  this 
reverence  for  antiquity,  and  I  would  propose  the  following 
way :  —  People  are  apt  to  fancy,  as  I  was  saying  before, 
that  when  the  plays  of  children  are  altered  they  are  merely 
plays,  not  seeing  that  the  most  serious  and  detrimental 
consequences  arise  out  of  the  change ;  and  they  readily 
comply  with  the  child’s  wishes  instead  of  deterring  him, 
not  considering  that  these  children  who  make  innovations 
in  their  games,  when  they  grow  up  to  be  men  will  be  dif¬ 
ferent  from  the  last  generation  of  children,  and,  being 
different,  will  desire  a  different  sort  of  life,  and  under  the 
influence  of  this  desire  will  want  other  institutions  and 
laws ;  and  no  one  ever  apprehends  that  there  will  follow 
what  I  just  now  called  the  greatest  of  evils  to  states. 
Changes  in  bodily  fashions  are  no  such  serious  evils,  but 
frequent  changes  in  the  praise  and  censure  of  manners  are 
the  greatest  of  evils,  and  require  the  utmost  prevision. 

Cle.  To  be  sure. 

Ath.  And  now  do  we  still  hold  to  our  former  assertion, 
that  rhythms  and  music  in  general  are  imitations  of  good 
and  evil  characters  in  men  ?  What  say  you  ? 

Cle.  That  is  the  only  doctrine  which  I  can  admit. 

Ath.  Must  we  not,  then,  try  in  every  possible  way  to 
prevent  our  youth  desiring  imitations  and  novelties  either 
in  dance  or  song  ?  nor  must  any  one  be  allowed  to  offer 
them  varieties  of  pleasures. 

Cle.  Most  true. 

Ath.  Can  any  better  mode  of  effecting  this  object  be 
imagined  by  any  of  us  than  that  of  the  Egyptians  ? 

Cle.  What  is  their  method  ? 

Ath.  They  consecrate  every  sort  of  dance  or  melody, 
first  ordaining  festivals,  —  calculating  for  the  year  what 
they  ought  to  be,  and  at  what  time,  and  in  honour  of  what 
Gods,  sons  of  Gods,  and  heroes  they  ought  to  be  cele¬ 
brated  ;  and,  in  the  next  place,  what  hymns  ought  to  be 
sung  at  the  several  sacrifices,  and  with  what  dances  the 
particular  festival  is  to  be  honoured.  This  is  to  be  arranged 
at  first  by  certain  persons,  and,  when  arranged,  the  whole 
assembly  of  the  citizens  are  to  offer  sacrifices  and  libations 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  237 

to  the  Fates  and  all  the  other  Gods,  and  to  consecrate  the 
several  odes  to  Gods  and  heroes :  and  if  any  one  offers 
any  other  hymns  or  dances  to  any  one  of  the  Gods,  the 
priests  and  priestesses,  with  the  consent  of  the  guardians 
of  the  law,  shall  religiously  and  lawfully  exclude  him,  and 
he  who  is  excluded,  if  he  do  not  submit,  shall  be  liable  all 
his  life  long  to  have  a  suit  of  impiety  brought  against  him 
by  any  one  who  likes. 

Cle.  Very  good. 

Ath.  In  the  consideration  of  this  subject,  let  us  remem¬ 
ber  what  is  due  to  ourselves. 

Cle.  To  what  are  you  referring? 

Ath.  I  mean  that  any  young  man,  and  much  more  any 
old  one,  when  he  sees  or  hears  anything  strange  or  unac¬ 
customed,  does  not  at  once  run  to  embrace  the  paradox, 
but  he  stands  considering,  like  a  person  who  is  at  a  place 
where  three  ways  meet,  and  does  not  very  well  know  his 
way  —  he  may  be  alone  or  he  may  be  walking  with  others, 
and  he  will  say  to  himself  and  them,  ‘Which  is  the  way?’ 
and  will  not  move  forward  until  he  is  satisfied  that  he  is 
going  right.  And  this  is  our  case,  for  a  strange  discussion 
on  the  subject  of  law  has  arisen,  which  requires  the  utmost 
consideration,  and  we  should  not  at  our  age  be  too  ready 
to  speak  about  such  great  matters,  or  be  confident  that  we 
can  say  anything  certain  all  in  a  moment. 

Cle.  Most  true. 

Ath.  Then  we  will  allow  time  for  reflection,  and  decide 
when  we  have  given  the  subject  sufficient  consideration. 
But  that  we  may  not  be  hindered  from  completing  the 
natural  arrangement  of  our  laws,  let  us  proceed  to  the  con¬ 
clusion  of  them  in  due  order ;  for  very  possibly,  if  God 
will,  the  exposition  of  them,  when  completed,  may  throw 
light  on  our  present  perplexity. 

Cle.  Excellent,  Stranger ;  let  us  do  as  you  propose. 

Ath.  Let  us  then  affirm  the  paradox  that  strains  of 
music  are  our  laws  (vo/ios),  and  this  latter  being  the  name 
which  the  ancients  gave  to  lyric  songs,  they  probably  would 
not  have  very  much  objected  to  our  proposed  application 
of  the  word.  Some  one,  either  asleep  or  awake,  must  have 
had  a  dreamy  suspicion  of  their  nature.  And  let  our  de¬ 
cree  be  as  follows:  —  No  one  in  singing  or  dancing  shall 


Music  serves 
as  a  restrain¬ 
ing  force,  as 
do  laws. 


Influence  of 
music  on  the 
people. 


238  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

offend  against  public  and  consecrated  models,  and  the 
general  fashion  among  the  youth,  any  more  than  he  would 
offend  against  any  other  law.  And  he  who  observes  this 
law  shall  be  blameless ;  but  he  who  is  disobedient,  as  I 
was  saying,  shall  be  punished  by  the  guardians  of  the  laws, 
and  by  priests  and  priestesses :  suppose  that  we  imagine 
this  to  be  our  law. 

Cle.  Very  good. 

Ath.  Can  any  one  who  makes  such  laws  escape  ridi¬ 
cule  ?  Let  us  see.  I  think  that  our  only  safety  will  be  in 
first  framing  certain  models  for  them.  One  of  these 
models  shall  be  as  follows  : —  If  when  a  sacrifice  is  going 
on,  and  the  victims  are  being  burnt  according  to  law,  —  if, 
I  say,  any  one  who  may  be  a  son  or  brother,  standing  by 
another  at  the  altar  and  over  the  victims,  horribly  blas¬ 
phemes,  will  he  not  inspire  despondency  and  evil  omens 
and  forebodings  in  the  mind  of  his  father  and  of  his  other 
kinsmen  ? 

Cle.  Of  course. 

Ath.  And  this  is  just  what  takes  place  in  almost  all  our 
cities.  A  magistrate  offers  a  public  sacrifice,  and  there 
come  in  not  one  but  many  choruses,  who  stand  by  them¬ 
selves  a  little  way  from  the  altar,  and  from  time  to  time 
pour  forth  all  sorts  of  horrible  blasphemies  on  the  sacred 
rites,  exciting  the  souls  of  the  audience  with  words  and 
rhythms,  and  melodies  most  sorrowful  to  hear;  and  he 
who  can  at  the  instant  the  city  is  sacrificing  make  the 
citizens  weep  most,  carries  away  the  palm  of  victory. 
Now,  ought  we  not  to  forbid  such  strains  as  these  ?  And 
if  ever  our  citizens  must  hear  such  lamentations,  then  on 
some  unblest  and  inauspicious  day  let  there  be  choruses 
of  foreign  and  hired  minstrels,  like  those  who  accompany 
the  departed  at  funerals  with  barbarous  Carian  chants. 
That  is  the  sort  of  thing  which  will  be  appropriate  if  we 
have  such  strains  at  all ;  and  let  the  apparel  of  the  singers 
be  not  circlets  and  ornaments  of  gold,  but  the  reverse. 
Enough  of  the  description.  And  now  I  will  ask  once 
more  whether  we  shall  lay  down  as  one  of  our  principles 
of  song  — 

Cle.  What  ? 

Ath.  That  we  should  avoid  every  evil  word.  I  need 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  239 

hardly  ask  again,  but  shall  assume  that  you  agree  with 
me. 

Cle.  By  all  means  ;  that  law  is  approved  by  the  suf¬ 
frage  of  all  of  us. 

Ath.  But  what  shall  be  our  next  musical  law  or  type  ? 
Ought  not  prayers  to  be  offered  up  to  the  Gods  when  we 
sacrifice  ? 

Cle.  Certainly. 

Ath.  And  our  third  law,  if  I  am  not  mistaken,  will  be 
to  the  effect,  that  our  poets  understanding  prayers  to  be 
requests  which  we  make  to  the  Gods,  will  take  especial 
heed  that  they  do  not  by  mistake  ask  for  evil  instead  of 

good.  To  make  such  a  prayer  would  surely  be  too  ridicu¬ 
lous. 

Cle.  Very  true. 

Ath.  Were  we  not  a  little  while  ago  quite  determined 
that  no  silver  or  golden  Plutus  should  dwell  in  our  state  ? 

Cle.  To  be  sure. 

Ath.  And  what  did  this  illustration  mean  ?  Did  we  not 
imply  that  the  poets  are  not  always  quite  capable  of  know¬ 
ing  what  is  good  or  evil  ?  And  if  one  of  them  utters  a 
mistaken  prayer  in  song  or  words,  he  will  make  our  citi¬ 
zens  pray  for  the  opposite  of  what  is  good  in  matters  of 
the  highest  import;  than  which,  as  I  was  saying,  there 
can  be  few  greater  mistakes.  Shall  we  then  propose  as 
one  of  our  laws  and  models  relating  to  the  Muses  — 

Cle.  What  ?  —  will  you  explain  the  law  more  precisely  ? 

Ath.  Shall  we  make  a  law  that  the  poet  shall  compose 
nothing  contrary  to  the  ideas  of  the  lawful,  or  just,  or 
beautiful,  or  good,  which  are  allowed  in  the  state  ?  nor 
shall  he  be  permitted  to  communicate  his  compositions  to 
any  private  individuals,  until  he  shall  have  shown  them 
to  the  appointed  judges,  and  the  guardians  of  the  law,  and 
they  are  satisfied  with  them.  As  to  the  persons  whom  we 
appoint  to  be  our  legislators  about  music  and  directors 
of  education,  they  have  been  already  indicated.  Once 
more  then,  as  I  have  asked  more  than  once,  shall  this  be 
our  third  law,  and  type,  and  model  —  What  do  you  say? 

Cle.  Yes,  by  all  means. 

Ath.  Next  it  will  be  proper  to  have  hymns  and  praises 
of  the  Gods,  intermingled  with  prayers ;  and  after  the 


Music  and 
poetry  shall 
conform  to 
these  laws. 


Selection  of 
proper  music 
by  public 
iudges. 


240  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Gods  prayers  and  praises  should  be  offered  in  like  manner 
to  demigods  and  heroes,  suitable  to  their  several  characters. 

Cle.  Certainly. 

Ath.  In  the  third  place  there  will  be  no  objection  to  a 
law,  that  citizens  who  are  departed  and  have  done  good 
and  energetic  deeds,  either  with  their  souls  or  with  their 
bodies,  and  have  been  obedient  to  the  laws,  should  receive 
eulogies ;  this  will  be  very  fitting. 

Cle.  Quite  true. 

Ath.  But  to  honour  with  hymns  and  panegyrics  those 
who  are  still  alive  is  not  safe  ;  a  man  should  run  his  course, 
and  make  a  fair  ending,  and  then  we  will  praise  him ;  and 
let  praise  be  given  equally  to  women  as  well  as  men  who 
have  been  distinguished  in  virtue.  The  order  of  songs  and 
dances  shall  be  as  follows :  — There  are  many  ancient 
musical  compositions  and  dances  which  are  excellent,  and 
from  these  the  government  may  freely  select  what  is  proper 
and  suitable;  and  they  shall  choose  judges  of  not  less 
than  fifty  years  of  age,  who  shall  make  the  selection,  and 
any  of  the  old  poems  which  they  deem  sufficient  they  shall 
include ;  any  that  is  deficient  or  altogether  unsuitable, 
they  shall  either  utterly  throw  aside,  or  examine  and 
amend,  taking  into  their  counsel  poets  and  musicians,  and 
making  use  of  their  poetical  genius ;  but  explaining  to 
them  the  wishes  of  the  legislator  in  order  that  they  may 
regulate  dancing,  music,  and  all  choral  strains,  according 
to  his  mind  ;  and  not  allowing  them  to  indulge,  except  in 
some  minor  matters,  their  individual  pleasures  and  fancies. 
Now,  the  irregular  strain  of  music  is  always  made  ten 
thousand  times  better  by  attaining  to  law  and  order,  and 
rejecting  the  honied  Muse  —  not  however  that  we  mean 
wholly  to  exclude  pleasure,  which  is  the  characteristic  of 
all  music.  And  if  a  man  be  brought  up  from  childhood 
to  the  age  of  discretion  and  maturity  in  the  use  of  the 
orderly  and  severe  music,  when  he  hears  the  opposite  he 
detests  it,  and  calls  it  illiberal ;  but  if  trained  in  the  sweet 
and  vulgar  music,  he  deems  the  opposite  cold  and  displeas¬ 
ing.  So  that,  as  I  was  saying  before,  while  he  who  hears 
them  gains  no  more  pleasure  from  the  one  than  from  the 
other,  the  one  has  the  advantage  of  making  those  who  are 
trained  in  it  better  men,  whereas  the  other  makes  them  worse. 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  241 


Cle.  Very  true. 

Ath.  Again,  we  must  distinguish  and  determine  on 
some  general  principle  what  songs  are  suitable  to  women, 
and  what  to  men,  and  must  assign  to  them  their  proper 
melodies  and  rhythms.  It  is  shocking  for  a  whole  har¬ 
mony  to  be  inharmonical,  or  for  a  rhythm  to  be  unrhyth¬ 
mical,  and  this  will  happen  when  the  melody  is  inappropriate 
to  them.  And,  therefore,  the  legislator  must  assign  to 
them  also  their  forms.  Now,  both  sexes  have  melodies 
and  rhythms  which  of  necessity  belong  to  them ;  and 
those  of  women  are  clearly  enough  indicated  by  their 
natural  difference.  The  grand,  and  that  which  tends  to 
courage,  may  be  fairly  called  manly ;  but  that  which  in¬ 
clines  to  moderation  and  temperance,  may  be  declared 
both  in  law  and  in  ordinary  speech  to  be  the  more  womanly 
quality :  this,  then,  will  be  the  general  order  of  them. 

Let  us  now  speak  of  the  manner  of  teaching  and  im¬ 
parting  them,  and  the  persons  to  whom,  and  the  time 
when,  they  are  severally  to  be  imparted.  As  the  ship¬ 
wright  first  lays  down  the  lines  of  the  keel,  and  draws  the 
design  in  outline,  so  do  I  seek  to  distinguish  the  patterns 
of  life,  and  lay  down  their  keels  according  to  the  nature 
of  different  men’s  souls  ;  seeking  truly  to  consider  by 
what  means,  and  in  what  ways,  we  may  go  through  the 
voyage  of  life  best.  Now,  human  affairs  are  hardly  worth 
considering  in  earnest,  and  yet  we  must  be  in  earnest 
about  them,  —  a  sad  necessity  constrains  us.  And  having 
got  thus  far,  there  will  be  a  fitness  in  our  completing  the 
matter,  if  we  can  only  find  some  suitable  means  of  doing 
so.  But  what  am  I  saying  ?  and  yet  very  probably  there 
may  be  a  meaning  latent  in  these  very  words. 

Cle.  To  be  sure. 

Ath.  I  say,  that  about  serious  matters  a  man  should  be 
serious,  and  about  a  matter  which  is  not  serious  he  should 
not  be  serious ;  and  that  God  is  the  natural  and  worthy 
object  of  a  man’s  most  serious  and  blessed  endeavours ; 
who,  as  I  said  before,  is  made  to  be  the  plaything  of  God, 
and  that  this,  truly  considered,  is  the  best  of  him ;  where¬ 
fore  every  man  and  woman  should  walk  seriously,  and 
pass  life  in  the  noblest  of  pastimes,  and  be  of  another 
mind  from  what  they  now  are. 


Different 
selections 
for  men  and 
for  women. 


How  taught. 


For  serious 
purposes. 


R 


242  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Proper  aims 
in  life 


determined 
by  tradition 
and  by 
nature. 


Schools  of 

various 

types. 


Cle.  In  what  respect  ? 

Ath.  Now  they  think  that  their  serious  pursuits  should 
be  for  the  sake  of  their  sports,  for  they  deem  war  a  serious 
pursuit,  which  must  be  managed  well  for  the  sake  of 
peace ;  but  the  truth  is,  that  there  neither  is,  nor  has  been, 
nor  ever  will  be,  either  amusement  or  instruction  in  any 
degree  worth  speaking  of  in  war,  which  is  nevertheless 
deemed  by  us  to  be  the  most  serious  of  our  pursuits.  And 
therefore,  as  we  say,  every  one  of  us  should  live  the  life 
of  peace  as  long  and  as  well  as  he  can.  And  what  is  the 
right  way  of  living  ?  Are  we  to  live  in  sports  always  ?  If 
so,  in  what  kind  of  sports  ?  We  ought  to  live  sacrificing, 
and  singing,  and  dancing,  and  then  a  man  will  be  able  to 
propitiate  the  Gods,  and  to  defend  himself  against  his 
enemies  and  conquer  them  in  battle.  The  type  of  song 
or  dance  by  which  he  will  propitiate  them  has  been  de¬ 
scribed,  and  the  paths  along  which  he  is  to  proceed  have 
been  cut  for  him.  He  will  go  forward  in  the  spirit  of  the 
poet :  — 

‘Telemachus,  some  things  thou  wilt  thyself  find  in  thy  heart,  but 
other  things  God  will  suggest ;  for  I  deem  that  thou  wast  not  born  or 
brought  up  without  the  will  of  the  Gods.1 

And  this  ought  to  be  the  view  of  our  alumni ;  they  ought 
to  think  that  what  has  been  said  is  enough  for  them,  and 
that  any  other  things  some  God  or  a  demigod  will  suggest 
to  them  —  he  will  tell  them  to  whom,  and  when,  and  to 
what  Gods  severally  they  are  to  sacrifice  and  perform 
dances,  and  how  they  may  propitiate  the  deities,  and  live 
according  to  the  appointment  of  nature  ;  being  for  the 
most  part  puppets,  but  having  some  little  share  of  reality. 

Meg.  You  have  a  low  opinion  of  mankind,  Stranger. 

Ath.  Nay,  Megillus,  I  was  only  comparing  them  with 
the  Gods  ;  and  under  that  feeling  I  spoke.  Let  us  grant,  if 
you  wish,  that  the  human  race  is  not  to  be  despised,  but 
is  worthy  of  some  consideration. 

Next  follow  the  buildings  for  gymnasia  and  schools 
open  to  all ;  these  are  to  be  in  three  places  in  the  midst  of 
the  city  ;  and  outside  the  city  and  in  the  surrounding  coun¬ 
try  there  shall  be  schools  for  horse  exercise,  and  open 
spaces  also  in  three  places,  arranged  with  a  view  to  archery 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  243 

and  the  throwing  of  missiles,  at  which  young  men  may  learn 
and  practise.  Of  these  mention  has  already  been  made ;  and 
if  the  mention  be  not  sufficiently  explicit,  let  us  speak 
further  of  them  and  embody  them  in  laws.  In  these 
several  schools  let  there  be  dwellings  for  teachers,  who 
shall  be  brought  from  foreign  parts  by  pay,  and  let  them 
teach  the  frequenters  of  the  school  the  art  of  war  and  the 
art  of  music,  and  the  children  shall  come,  not  only  if  their 
parents  please,  but  if  they  do  not  please;  and  if  their  edu¬ 
cation  is  neglected,  there  shall  be  compulsory  education, 
as  the  saying  is,  of  all  and  sundry,  as  far  as  this  is  possible ; 
and  the  pupils  shall  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  state 
rather  than  to  their  parents.  My  law  would  apply  to 
females  as  well  as  males ;  they  shall  both  go  through  the 
same  exercises.  I  assert  without  fear  of  contradiction  that 
gymnastic  and  horsemanship  are  as  suitable  to  women  as 
to  men.  Of  the  truth  of  this  I  am  persuaded  from  ancient 
tradition,  and  at  the  present  day  there  are  said  to  be  myr¬ 
iads  of  women  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Black  Sea,  called 
Sauromatides,1  who  not  only  ride  on  horseback  like  men, 
but  have  enjoined  upon  them  the  use  of  bows  and  other 
weapons  equally  with  the  men.  And  I  further  affirm,  that 
if  these  things  are  possible,  nothing  can  be  more  absurd 
than  the  practice  which  prevails  in  our  own  country  of 
men  and  women  not  following  the  same  pursuits  with  all 
their  strength  and  with  one  mind,  for  thus  the  state,  instead 
of  being  a  whole,  is  reduced  to  a  half,  and  yet  has  the 
same  imposts  to  pay  and  the  same  toils  to  undergo ;  and 
what  can  be  a  greater  mistake  for  any  legislator  to  make  ? 

Cle.  Very  true;  and  much  of  what  has  been  asserted 
by  us,  Stranger,  is  contrary  to  the  custom  of  states ;  still, 
in  saying  that  the  discourse  should  be  allowed  to  proceed, 
and  that  when  the  discussion  is  completed,  we  should 
choose  what  seems  best,  you  have  spoken  very  properly, 
and  have  made  me  feel  compunction  for  what  I  said.  Tell 
me,  then,  what  you  would  next  wish  to  say. 

Ath.  I  should  wish  to  say,  Cleinias,  as  I  said  before, 
that  if  the  possibility  of  these  things  were  not  sufficiently 
proven  in  fact,  then  there  might  be  an  objection  to  the 
argument,  but  the  fact  being  as  I  have  said,  he  who  rejects 

1  Scythians,  of  what  is  now  Southern  Russia. 


Education 
should  be 
compulsory 
and  the  same 
for  both 
sexes. 


Other  ideas 
concerning 
the  educa¬ 
tion  of 
women. 


244  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

the  law  must  find  some  other  ground  of  objection ;  and, 
failing  this,  our  exhortation  will  still  hold  good,  nor  will 
any  one  deny  that  women  ought  to  share  as  far  as  possible 
in  education  and  in  other  ways  with  men,  for  consider  ;  —  if 
women  do  not  share  in  their  whole  life  with  men,  then 
they  must  have  some  other  order  of  life. 

Cle.  Certainly. 

Ath.  And  what  arrangement  of  life  to  be  found  any¬ 
where  is  preferable  to  this  community  which  we  are  now 
assigning  to  them  ?  Shall  we  prefer  that  which  is  adopted 
by  the  Thracians  and  many  other  races  who  use  their 
women  to  till  the  ground  and  to  be  shepherds  of  their 
herds  and  flocks,  and  to  minister  to  them  like  slaves  ?  Or 
shall  we  do  as  we  and  people  in  our  part  of  the  world  do  ? 
getting  together,  as  the  phrase  is,  all  our  goods  and  chat¬ 
tels  into  one  dwelling  —  these  we  entrust  to  our  women, 
who  are  the  stewards  of  them ;  and  who  also  preside  over 
the  shuttles  and  the  whole  art  of  spinning.  Or  shall  we 
take  a  middle  course,  as  in  Lacedaemon,  Megillus,  letting 
the  girls  share  in  gymnastic  and  music,  while  the  grown-up 
women,  no  longer  employed  in  spinning  wool,  are  actively 
engaged  in  weaving  the  web  of  life,  which  will  be  no  cheap 
or  mean  employment,  and  in  the  duty  of  serving  and  tak¬ 
ing  care  of  the  household  and  bringing  up  children  in 
which  they  will  observe  a  sort  of  mean,  not  participating 
in  the  toils  of  war;  and  if  there  were  any  necessity  that 
they  should  fight  for  their  city  and  families,  unlike  the 
Amazons,  they  would  be  unable  to  take  part  in  archery  or 
any  other  skilled  use  of  missiles,  nor  could  they,  after  the 
example  of  the  Goddess,  carry  shield  or  spear,  or  stand 
up  nobly  for  their  country  when  it  was  being  destroyed, 
and  strike  terror  into  their  enemies,  if  only  because  they 
were  seen  in  regular  order  ?  Living  as  they  do,  they 
would  never  dare  at  all  to  imitate  the  Sauromatides,  whose 
women,  when  compared  with  ordinary  women,  would 
appear  to  be  like  men.  Let  him  who  will,  praise  your 
legislators,  but  I  must  say  what  I  think.  The  legislator 
ought  to  be  whole  and  perfect,  and  not  half  a  man  only; 
he  ought  not  to  let  the  female  sex  live  softly  and  waste 
money  and  have  no  order  of  life,  while  he  takes  the  ut¬ 
most  care  of  the  male  sex,  and  leaves  half  of  life  only 


Educational  Theory :  P  hilo  sop  hie  al  View  245 

blest  with  happiness,  when  he  might  have  made  the  whole 
state  happy. 

Meg.  What  shall  we  do,  Cleinias  ?  Shall  we  allow  a 
stranger  to  run  down  Sparta  in  this  fashion  ? 

Cle.  Yes;  for  as  we  have  given  him  liberty  of  speech 
we  must  let  him  go  on  until  we  have  perfected  the  work 
of  legislation. 

Meg.  Very  true. 

Ath.  Then  now  I  may  proceed  ? 

Cle.  By  all  means. 

Ath.  What  will  be  the  manner  of  life  among  men  who 
may  be  supposed  to  have  their  food  and  clothing  provided 
for  them  in  moderation,  and  who  have  entrusted  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  the  arts  to  others,  and  whose  husbandry,  committed 
to  slaves  paying  a  part  of  the  produce,  brings  them  a 
return  sufficient  for  men  living  temperately ;  who,  more¬ 
over,  have  common  tables  in  which  the  men  are  placed 
apart,  and  near  them  are  the  common  tables  of  their  fam¬ 
ilies,  of  their  daughters  and  mothers,  which  day  by  day, 
the  rulers,  male  and  female,  are  to  inspect  and  look  to 
their  mode  of  life  and  so  dismiss  them  ;  after  which  the 
magistrate  and  his  attendants  shall  honour  with  libations 
those  Gods  to  whom  that  day  and  night  are  dedicated, 
and  then  go  home  ?  To  men  whose  lives  are  thus  ordered, 
is  there  no  work  to  be  done  which  is  necessary  and  fitting, 
but  shall  each  one  of  them  live  fattening  like  a  beast  ? 
Such  a  life  is  neither  just  nor  honourable,  nor  can  he  who 
lives  it  fail  of  meeting  his  due  ;  and  the  due  reward  of  the 
idle  fatted  beast  is  that  he  should  be  torn  in  pieces  by 
some  other  valiant  beast  whose  fatness  is  worn  down  by 
labours  and  toils.  These  regulations,  if  we  duly  consider 
them,  will  never  perfectly  take  effect  under  present  cir¬ 
cumstances,  nor  as  long  as  women  and  children  and  houses 
and  all  other  things  are  the  private  property  of  individuals  ; 
but  if  we  can  attain  the  second-best  form  of  polity,  with 
that  we  may  be  satisfied.  And  to  men  living  under  this 
second  polity  there  remains  a  work  to  be  accomplished 
which  is  far  from  being  small  or  insignificant,  but  is  the 
greatest  of  all  works,  and  ordained  by  the  appointment  of 
righteous  law.  For  a  life  which  is  wholly  concerned  with 
the  virtue  of  body  and  soul  may  truly  be  said  to  be  twice, 


Life  of 

leisure 

desirable, 


in  order  to 
provide 
exercise  for 
the  body  and 
education 
for  the  soul. 


246  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

or  more  than  twice,  as  full  of  toil  and  trouble  as  the  pur¬ 
suit  after  Pythian  1  and  Olympic  victories,  which  debars  a 
man  from  every  employment  of  life.  For  there  ought  to 
be  no  bye-work  interfering  with  the  greater  work  of  pro¬ 
viding  the  necessary  exercise  and  nourishment  for  the 
body,  and  instruction  and  education  for  the  soul.  Night 
and  day  are  not  long  enough  for  the  accomplishment  of 
their  perfection  and  consummation ;  and  therefore  to  this 
end  all  freemen  ought  to  arrange  the  time  of  their  em¬ 
ployments  during  the  whole  course  of  the  twenty-four 
hours,  from  morning  to  evening  and  from  evening  to  the 
morning  of  the  next  sunrise.  There  may  seem  to  be  some 
impropriety  in  the  legislator  determining  minutely  the 
little  details  of  the  management  of  the  house,  including 
such  particulars  as  the  duty  of  wakefulness  in  those  who 
are  to  be  perpetual  watchmen  of  the  whole  city ;  for  that 
any  citizen  should  continue  during  the  whole  night  in 
sleep,  instead  of  being  seen  by  all  his  servants,  always  the 
first  to  awake  and  the  first  to  rise  —  this,  whether  the 
regulation  is  to  be  called  a  law  or  only  a  practice,  should 
be  deemed  base  and  unworthy  of  a  freeman ;  also  that  the 
mistress  of  the  house  should  be  awakened  by  her  hand¬ 
maidens  instead  of  herself  first  awakening  them,  is  what 
her  slaves,  male  and  female,  and  her  children,  and,  if  that 
were  possible,  everything  in  the  house  should  regard  as 
base.  If  they  rise  early,  they  may  all  of  them  do  much  of 
their  public  and  of  their  household  business,  as  magis¬ 
trates  in  the  city,  and  masters  and  mistresses  in  their  pri¬ 
vate  houses,  before  the  sun  is  up.  Much  sleep  is  not 
required  by  nature,  either  for  our  souls  or  bodies,  or  for 
the  actions  in  which  they  are  concerned.  For  no  one  who 
is  asleep  is  good  for  anything,  any  more  than  if  he  were 
dead ;  but  he  of  us  who  has  the  most  regard  for  life  and 
reason  keeps  awake  as  long  as  he  can,  reserving  only  so 
much  time  for  sleep  as  is  expedient  for  health ;  and  much 
sleep  is  not  required,  if  the  habit  of  not  sleeping  be  once 
formed.  Magistrates  in  states  who  keep  awake  at  night 


1  After  the  Olympic  games,  the  most  important  of  Greek  national  festivals. 
Held  every  fourth  year  at  Delphi  in  honor  of  Apollo.  They  consisted  of 
musical  and  gymnastic  contests. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  247 

are  terrible  to  the  bad,  whether  enemies  or  citizens,  and 
are  honoured  and  reverenced  by  the  just  and  temperate, 
and  are  useful  to  themselves  and  to  the  whole  state. 

A  night  which  is  short  and  devoted  to  work,  in  addition 
to  all  the  above-mentioned  advantages,  infuses  a  sort  of 
courage  into  the  minds  of  the  citizens.  When  the  day 
breaks,  the  time  has  arrived  for  youth  to  go  to  their 
schoolmasters.  Now,  neither  sheep  nor  any  other  animals 
can  live  without  a  shepherd,  nor  can  children  be  left  with¬ 
out  tutors,  or  slaves  without  masters.  And  of  all  animals 
the  boy  is  the  most  unmanageable,  inasmuch  as  he  has 
the  fountain  of  reason  in  him  not  yet  regulated ;  he  is  the 
most  insidious,  sharp-witted,  and  insubordinate  of  animals. 
Wherefore  he  must  be  bound  with  many  bridles ;  in  the 
first  place,  when  he  gets  away  from  mothers  and  nurses, 
he  must  be  under  the  control  of  tutors  on  account  of  his 
childishness  and  foolishness ;  then,  again,  being  a  free¬ 
man,  he  must  have  teachers  and  be  educated  by  them  in 
anything  which  they  teach,  and  must  learn  what  he  has  to 
learn  ;  but  he  is  also  a  slave,  and  in  that  regard  any  free¬ 
man  who  comes  in  his  way  may  punish  him  and  his  tutor 
and  his  instructor,  if  any  of  them  does  anything  wrong ; 
and  he  who  comes  across  him  and  does  not  inflict  upon 
him  the  punishment  which  he  deserves,  shall  incur  the 
greatest  disgrace ;  and  let  the  guardian  of  the  law,  who  is 
the  director  of  education,  see  to  him  who  coming  in  the 
way  of  the  offences  which  we  have  mentioned,  does  not 
chastise  them  when  he  ought,  or  chastises  them  in  a  way 
which  he  ought  not ;  let  him  keep  a  sharp  look-out,  and 
take  especial  care  of  the  training  of  our  children,  directing 
their  natures,  and  always  turning  them  to  good  according 
to  the  law. 

And  how  can  our  law  sufficiently  train  the  director  of 
education  himself  ;  for  as  yet  all  has  been  imperfect,  and 
nothing  has  been  said  either  clear  or  satisfactory  ?  Now, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  law  ought  to  leave  nothing  to  him, 
but  to  explain  everything,  that  he  may  be  the  interpreter 
and  tutor  of  others.  About  dances  and  music  and  choral 
strains,  I  have  already  spoken  both  as  to  the  character  of 
the  selection  of  them,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
to  be  improved  and  consecrated.  But  we  have  not  yet 


Difficulties 
of  educating 
children. 


Training 
and  work  ol 
the  teacher. 


248  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Period  of 
literary 
education; 
of  musical 
education. 


spoken,  O  illustrious  guardian  of  education,  of  the  manner 
in  which  your  pupils  are  to  use  those  strains  which  are 
written  in  prose,  although  you  have  been  informed  what 
martial  strains  they  are  to  learn  and  practise ;  what  relates 
in  the  first  place  to  the  learning  of  letters,  and  secondly, 
to  the  lyre,  and  also  to  calculation,  which,  as  we  were 
saying,  is  needful  for  them  all  to  learn,  and  any  other 
things  which  are  required  with  a  view  to  war  and  the 
management  of  house  and  city,  and,  looking  to  the  same 
object,  what  is  useful  in  the  revolutions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  —  the  stars  and  sun  and  moon,  and  the  various 
regulations  about  these  matters  which  are  necessary  for 
the  whole  state  —  I  am  speaking  of  the  arrangements  of 
days  in  periods  of  months,  and  of  months  in  years,  which 
are  to  be  observed,  in  order  that  times  and  sacrifices  and 
festivals  may  proceed  in  regular  and  natural  order,  and 
keep  the  city  alive  and  awake,  the  Gods  receiving  the 
honours  due  to  them,  and  men  having  a  better  understand¬ 
ing  about  them ;  all  these  things,  O  my  friend,  have  not 
yet  been  sufficiently  declared  by  the  legislator.  Attend, 
then,  to  what  I  am  now  going  to  say  :  We  were  telling  you, 
in  the  first  place,  that  you  were  not  sufficiently  informed 
about  letters,  and  the  objection  made  was  to  this  effect,  — 
‘That  you  were  never  told  whether  he  who  was  meant  to 
be  a  respectable  citizen  should  apply  himself  in  detail  to 
that  sort  of  learning,  or  not  apply  himself  at  all’  ;  and 
the  same  remark  was  made  about  the  lyre.  But  now  we 
say  that  he  ought  to  attend  to  them.  A  fair  time  for  a 
boy  of  ten  years  old  to  spend  in  letters  is  three  years ;  at 
thirteen  years  he  should  begin  to  handle  the  lyre,  and  he 
may  continue  at  this  for  another  three  years,  neither  more 
nor  less,  and  whether  his  father  or  himself  like  or  dislike 
the  study,  he  is  not  to  be  allowed  to  spend  more  or  less 
time  in  learning  music  than  the  law  allows.  And  let  him 
who  disobeys  the  law  be  deprived  of  those  youthful  honours 
of  which  we  shall  hereafter  speak.  Hear,  however,  first 
of  all,  what  the  young  ought  to  learn  in  the  early  years  of 
life,  and  what  their  instructors  ought  to  teach  them.  They 
ought  to  be  occupied  with  their  letters  until  they  are  able 
to  read  and  write  ;  but  the  acquisition  of  perfect  beauty 
or  quickness  in  writing,  if  nature  has  not  stimulated  them 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  249 


to  acquire  these  accomplishments  in  the  given  number  of 
years,  they  should  let  alone.  And  as  to  the  learning  of 
compositions  committed  to  writing  which  are  unaccom¬ 
panied  by  song,  whether  metrical  or  without  rhythmical 
divisions,  compositions  in  prose,  as  they  are  termed,  having 
no  rhythm  or  harmony  —  seeing  how  dangerous  are  the 
writings  handed  down  to  us  by  many  writers  of  this  class 
—  what  will  you  do  with  them,  O  most  excellent  guardians 
of  the  law  ?  or  how  can  the  lawgiver  rightly  direct  you  about 
them  ?  I  believe  that  he  will  be  in  great  difficulty. 

Cle.  What  troubles  you,  Stranger  ?  and  why  are  you 
so  perplexed  in  your  mind  ? 

Ath.  You  naturally  ask,  Cleinias,  and  to  you,  who  are 
my  partners  in  the  work  of  education,  I  must  state  the 
difficulties  of  the  case. 

Cle.  To  what  do  you  refer  in  this  instance  ? 

Ath.  I  will  tell  you.  There  is  a  difficulty  in  opposing 
many  myriads  of  mouths. 

Cle.  Well,  and  have  we  not  already  opposed  the  popu¬ 
lar  voice  in  many  important  enactments  ? 

Ath.  That  is  quite  true ;  and  you  mean  to  imply  that 
the  road  which  we  are  taking  may  be  disagreeable  to  some 
but  is  agreeable  to  as  many  others,  or  if  not  to  as  many,  at 
any  rate  to  persons  not  inferior  to  the  others,  and  in  com¬ 
pany  with  them  you  bid  me,  at  whatever  risk,  proceed 
along  the  path  of  legislation  which  has  opened  out  of  our 
present  discourse,  and  to  be  of  good  cheer,  and  not  to  faint. 

Cle.  Certainly. 

Ath.  And  I  do  not  faint ;  I  say,  indeed,  that  we  have 
a  great  many  poets  writing  in  hexameter,  trimeter,  and  all 
sorts  of  measures  —  some  who  are  serious,  others  who  aim 
only  at  raising  a  laugh  —  and  all  mankind  declare  that  the 
youth  who  are  rightly  educated  should  be  brought  up  and 
saturated  with  them ;  they  should  be  constantly  hearing 
them  read  at  recitations,  and  some  would  have  them  learn 
by  heart  entire  poets;  while  others  select  choice  passages 
and  long  speeches,  and  make  compendiums  of  them,  saying 
that  these  shall  be  committed  to  memory,  and  that  in  this 
way  only  can  a  man  be  made  good  and  wise  by  experience 
and  learning.  And  you  want  me  to  say  plainly  in  what 
they  are  right  and  in  what  they  are  wrong. 


Difficulties 
in  the 
literary 
education. 


Objections 
to  the  poets. 


250  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Socratic 
dialogues 
the  best 
literary  sub¬ 
ject-matter. 


Cle.  Yes,  I  do. 

Ath.  But  how  can  I  in  one  word  rightly  comprehend 
all  of  them  ?  I  am  of  opinion,  and,  if  I  am  not  mistaken, 
there  is  a  general  agreement,  that  every  one  of  these  poets 
has  said  many  things  well  and  many  things  the  reverse  of 
well ;  and  if  this  be  true,  then  I  do  affirm  that  much  learn¬ 
ing  brings  danger  to  youth. 

Cle.  Then  how  would  you  advise  the  guardian  of  the 
law  to  act? 

Ath.  In  what  respect  ? 

Cle.  I  mean  to  what  pattern  should  he  look  as  his 
guide  in  permitting  the  young  to  learn  some  things  and 
forbidding  them  to  learn  others  ?  Do  not  shrink  from 
answering. 

Ath.  My  good  Cleinias,  I  rather  think  that  I  am  fortu¬ 
nate. 

Cle.  In  what? 

Ath.  I  think  that  I  am  not  wholly  in  want  of  a  pattern, 
for  when  I  consider  the  words  which  we  have  spoken  from 
early  dawn  until  now,  and  which,  as  I  believe,  have  been 
inspired  by  Heaven,  they  appear  to  me  to  be  quite  like  a 
poem.  When  I  reflected  upon  all  these  words  of  ours,  I 
naturally  felt  pleasure,  for  of  all  the  discourses  which 
I  have  ever  learnt  or  heard,  either  in  poetry  or  prose,  this 
seemed  to  me  to  be  the  justest,  and  most  suitable  for 
young  men  to  hear ;  I  cannot  imagine  any  better  pattern 
than  this  which  the  guardian  of  the  law  and  the  educator 
can  have.  They  cannot  do  better  than  advise  the  teachers 
to  teach  the  young  these  and  the  like  words,  and  if  they 
should  happen  to  find  writings,  either  in  poetry  or  prose, 
or  even  unwritten  discourses  like  these  of  ours,  and  of  the 
same  family,  they  should  certainly  preserve  them,  and 
commit  them  to  writing.  And,  first  of  all,  they  shall  con¬ 
strain  the  teachers  themselves  to  learn  and  approve  them, 
and  any  of  them  who  will  not,  shall  not  be  employed  by 
them,  but  those  whom  they  find  agreeing  in  their  judg¬ 
ment,  they  shall  make  use  of  and  shall  commit  to  them 
the  instruction  and  education  of  youth.  And  here  and  on 
this  wise  let  my  fanciful  tale  about  letters  and  teachers  of 
letters  come  to  an  end. 

Cle.  I  do  not  think,  Stranger,  that  we  have  wandered 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  251 

out  of  the  proposed  limits  of  the  argument ;  but  whether 
we  are  right  or  not  in  the  whole  design  I  cannot  be  very 
certain. 

Ath.  The  truth,  Cleinias,  may  be  expected  to  become 
clearer  when,  as  we  have  often  said,  we  arrive  at  the  end 
of  the  whole  discussion  about  laws. 

Cle.  Yes. 

Ath.  And  now  that  we  have  done  with  the  teacher  of  Principles 
letters,  the  teacher  of  the  lyre  has  to  receive  orders  from  controlling 

the  teacher 
of  the  lyre. 

Cle.  Certainly. 

Ath.  I  think  that  we  have  only  to  recollect  our  previous 
discussions,  and  we  shall  be  able  to  give  suitable  regula¬ 
tions  touching  all  this  part  of  instruction  and  education 
to  the  teachers  of  the  lyre. 

Cle.  To  what  do  you  refer  ? 

Ath.  We  were  saying,  if  I  remember  rightly,  that  the 
sixty  years’  old  choristers  of  Dionysus  were  to  be  specially 
quick  in  their  perceptions  of  rhythm  and  musical  composi¬ 
tion,  that  they  might  be  able  to  distinguish  good  and  bad 
imitation,  or  in  other  words,  the  imitation  of  the  good  or 
bad  soul  when  under  the  influence  of  passion,  rejecting  the 
one  and  displaying  the  other  in  hymns  and  songs,  charm¬ 
ing  the  souls  of  youth,  and  inviting  them  to  follow  and 
attain  virtue  by  the  way  of  imitation. 

Cle.  Very  true. 

Ath.  And  with  this  view  the  teacher  and  the  learner 
ought  to  use  the  sounds  of  the  lyre  because  its  notes  are 
pure,  the  player  who  teaches  and  his  pupil  giving  note  for 
note  in  unison ;  but  complexity,  and  variation  of  notes, 
when  the  strings  give  one  sound  and  the  poet  or  composer 
of  the  melody  gives  another ;  also  when  they  make  con¬ 
cords  and  harmonies  in  which  lesser  and  greater  intervals, 
slow  and  quick,  or  high  and  low  notes,  are  combined ;  or, 
again,  when  they  make  complex  variations  of  rhythms,  which 
they  adapt  to  the  notes  of  the  lyre,  —  all  that  sort  of  thing 
is  not  suited  to  those  who  have  to  acquire  a  speedy  and 
useful  knowledge  of  music  in  three  years ;  for  opposite 
principles  are  confusing,  and  create  a  difficulty  in  learning, 
and  our  young  men  should  learn  quickly,  and  their  mere 
necessary  acquirements  are  not  few  or  trifling,  as  will  be 


252  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Rules 
concerning 
dancing  and 
gymnastic. 


Branches  of 
gymnastic. 


shown  in  due  course.  Let  our  educator  attend  to  the  prin¬ 
ciples  concerning  music  which  we  are  laying  down.  As  to 
the  songs  and  words  themselves  which  the  masters  of  cho¬ 
ruses  are  to  teach  and  the  character  of  them,  they  have 
been  already  described  by  us,  and  are  the  same  which  we 
said  were  to  be  consecrated  as  may  suit  the  several  feasts, 
and  so  furnish  an  innocent  and  useful  amusement  to 
cities. 

Cle.  That,  again,  is  true. 

Ath.  Then  let  the  musical  president  who  has  been 
elected  receive  these  rules  from  us  as  the  very  truth ;  and 
may  he  prosper  in  his  office  !  Let  us  now  proceed  to  lay 
down  other  rules  about  dancing  and  gymnastic  exercise  in 
general.  Having  said  what  remained  to  be  said  about  the 
teaching  of  music,  let  us  speak  in  like  manner  about  gym¬ 
nastic.  For  boys  and  girls  ought  to  learn  to  dance  and 
practise  gymnastic  exercises  —  ought  they  not? 

Cle.  Yes. 

Ath.  Then  the  boys  ought  to  have  dancing  masters, 
and  the  girls  dancing  mistresses  to  exercise  them. 

Cle.  Very  good. 

Ath.  Then  once  more  let  us  call  him  who  will  have  the 
chief  trouble,  the  superintendent  of  youth ;  he  will  have 
plenty  to  do,  if  he  is  to  have  the  charge  of  music  and  gym¬ 
nastic. 

Cle.  But  how  will  an  old  man  be  able  to  attend  to  such 
great  charges  ? 

Ath.  O,  my  friend,  there  will  be  no  difficulty,  for  the 
law  has  already  given  and  will  give  him  permission  to  select 
as  his  assistants  in  this  charge  any  citizens,  male  or  female, 
whom  he  desires ;  and  he  will  know  whom  he  ought  to 
choose,  and  will  be  anxious  not  to  make  a  mistake,  from  a 
sense  of  responsibility,  and  from  a  consciousness  of  the 
importance  of  his  office,  and  also  because  he  will  consider 
that  if  young  men  have  been  and  are  well  brought  up,  then 
all  things  go  swimmingly,  but  if  not,  it  is  not  meet  to  say, 
nor  do  we  say,  what  will  follow,  lest  the  regarders  of  omens 
should  take  alarm  about  our  infant  state.  Many  things 
have  been  said  by  us  about  dancing  and  about  gymnastic 
movements  in  general ;  for  we  include  under  gymnastics 
all  military  exercises,  such  as  archery,  and  all  hurling  of 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  253 

weapons,  and  the  use  of  the  light  shield,  and  all  fighting 
with  heavy  arms,  and  military  evolutions,  and  movements 
of  armies,  and  encampments,  and  all  that  relates  to  horse¬ 
manship.  Of  all  these  things  there  ought  to  be  public 
teachers,  receiving  pay  from  the  state,  and  their  pupils 
should  be  the  men  and  boys  in  the  state,  and  also  the  girls 
and  women,  who  are  to  know  all  these  things.  While  they 
are  yet  girls  they  should  have  practised  dancing  in  arms 
and  the  whole  art  of  fighting  —  when  they  are  grown-up 
women,  applying  themselves  to  evolutions  and  tactics,  and 
the  mode  of  grounding  and  taking  up  arms  ;  if  for  no  other 
reason,  yet  in  case  the  whole  people  should  have  to  leave 
the  city  and  carry  on  operations  of  war  outside,  that  the 
young  who  are  left  to  guard  and  the  rest  of  the  city  may 
be  equal  to  the  task ;  and,  on  the  other  hand  (what  is  far 
from  being  an  impossibility),  when  enemies,  whether  bar¬ 
barian  or  Hellenic,  come  from  without  with  mighty  force 
and  make  a  violent  assault  upon  them,  and  thus  compel 
them  to  fight  for  the  possession  of  the  city,  great  would  be 
the  disgrace  to  the  state,  if  the  women  had  been  so  miser¬ 
ably  trained  that  they  could  not  fight  for  their  young,  as 
birds  will,  against  any  creature  however  strong,  and  die  or 
undergo  any  danger,  but  must  instantly  rush  to  the  temples 
and  crowd  at  the  altars  and  shrines,  and  bring  upon  human 
nature  the  reproach,  that  of  all  animals  man  is  the  most 
cowardly. 

Cle.  Such  a  want  of  education,  Stranger,  is  certainly 
an  unseemly  thing  to  happen  in  a  state,  and  also  a  great 
misfortune. 

Ath.  Suppose  that  we  carry  our  law  to  the  extent  of 
saying  that  women  ought  not  to  neglect  military  matters, 
but  that  all  citizens,  male  and  female  alike,  shall  attend 
to  them  ? 

Cle.  I  quite  agree. 

Ath.  Of  wrestling  we  have  spoken  in  part,  but  of  what 
I  should  call  the  most  important  part  we  have  not  spoken, 
and  cannot  easily  speak  without  showing  at  the  same  time 
by  gesture  as  well  as  in  word  what  we  mean ;  when  word 
and  action  combine,  and  not  till  then,  we  shall  explain 
clearly  what  has  been  said,  pointing  out  that  of  all  move¬ 
ments  wrestling  is  most  akin  to  the  military  art,  and  is  to 


254  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Dancing. 


Warrior 

dances. 


Dance  of 
peace. 


Types  to  be 
approved; 
their  uses. 


be  pursued  for  the  sake  of  this,  and  not  this  for  the  sake 
of  wrestling. 

Cle.  Excellent. 

Ath.  Thus  far  we  have  spoken  of  the  palaestra,  and  we 
will  now  proceed  to  speak  of  other  movements  of  the  body. 
Such  motion  may  be  in  general  called  dancing,  and  is  of 
two  kinds :  one  of  nobler  figures,  imitating  the  honourable, 
the  other  of  the  more  ignoble  figures,  imitating  the  mean ; 
and  of  both  these  there  are  two  further  sub-divisions.  Of 
the  serious,  one  kind  is  of  those  engaged  in  war  and  vehe¬ 
ment  action,  and  is  the  exercise  of  a  noble  person  and  a 
manly  heart;  the  other  exhibits  a  temperate  soul  in  the 
enjoyment  of  prosperity  and  modest  pleasures,  and  may 
be  truly  called  and  is  the  dance  of  peace.  The  warrior 
dance  is  different  from  the  peaceful  one,  and  may  be  rightly 
termed  Pyrrhic ;  this  imitates  the  modes  of  avoiding  blows 
and  darts,  by  dropping  or  giving  way,  or  springing  aside, 
or  rising  up  or  falling  down ;  also  the  opposite  of  postures 
which  are  those  of  action,  as,  for  example,  the  imitation  of 
archery  and  the  hurling  of  javelins,  and  of  all  sorts  of  blows. 
And  when  the  imitation  is  of  brave  bodies  and  souls,  and 
the  action  is  direct  and  muscular,  giving  for  the  most  part 
a  straight  movement  to  the  limbs  of  the  body  —  that,  I  say, 
is  the  true  sort ;  but  the  opposite  is  not  right.  In  the  dance 
of  peace  the  consideration  is  whether  a  man  bears  himself 
naturally  and  gracefully,  and  after  the  manner  of  well-con¬ 
ditioned  men.  But  before  proceeding  I  must  distinguish 
the  dancing  about  which  there  is  any  doubt,  from  that  about 
which  there  is  no  doubt.  How  shall  we  distinguish  them? 
There  are  dances  of  the  Bacchic  sort,  in  which  they  imitate, 
as  they  say,  the  Nymphs,  and  Pan,  and  drunken  Silenuses, 
and  Satyrs,  after  whom  they  name  them,  making  purifica¬ 
tions  and  celebrating  mysteries,  —  all  this  sort  of  dancing 
cannot  be  distinguished  as  having  either  a  peaceful  or  a 
warlike  character,  or  indeed  as  having  any  meaning  what¬ 
ever,  and  may,  I  think,  be  most  truly  described  as  distinct 
from  the  warlike  dance,  and  distinct  from  the  peaceful,  and 
not  suited  for  a  city  at  all.  Having  left  this  behind  us,  we 
will  now  proceed  to  the  dances  of  war  and  peace,  about 
which  there  can  be  no  doubt  in  our  state.  Now  the  unwar¬ 
like  muse,  which  honours  in  dance  the  Gods  and  the  sons  of 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  255 

the  Gods,  is  associated  with  the  consciousness  of  prosperity ; 
and  this  may  be  sub-divided  into  classes,  of  which  one  is 
expressive  of  an  escape  from  some  labour  or  danger  into 
good,  and  has  greater  pleasures ;  the  other  expressive  of 
preservation  and  increase  of  former  good,  in  which  the 
pleasure  is  less  exciting ;  —  in  all  these  cases,  every  man 
when  the  pleasure  is  greater,  moves  his  body  more,  and 
less  when  the  pleasure  is  less ;  and,  again,  if  he  be  more 
orderly  and  disciplined  he  moves  less ;  but  if  he  be  a  cow¬ 
ard,  and  has  no  training  or  self-control,  he  makes  greater 
and  more  violent  movements,  and  in  general  when  he  is 
speaking  or  singing  he  is  not  altogether  able  to  control 
his  body ;  and  so  out  of  the  imitation  of  words  in  gestures 
the  art  of  dancing  has  originated.  And  in  these  various 
kinds  of  imitation  one  man  moves  in  an  orderly,  another 
in  a  disorderly  manner ;  and  as  the  ancients  may  be  ob¬ 
served  to  have  given  many  names  which  are  according  to 
nature  and  deserving  of  praise,  so  there  is  an  excellent  one 
which  they  have  given  to  those  dances  of  men  in  their  times 
of  prosperity,  who  are  moderate  in  their  pleasures  —  who¬ 
ever  he  was  gave  them  a  very  true,  and  poetical,  and  rational 
name,  when  he  called  them  Emmeleiai,  or  dances  of  order ; 
thus  establishing  two  kinds  of  dances  of  the  nobler  sort, 
the  dance  of  war  which  he  called  the  Pyrrhic,  and  the 
dance  of  peace  which  he  called  Emmeleia,  or  the  dance 
of  order;  giving  to  each  their  appropriate  and  becoming 
name.  These  things  the  legislator  should  indicate  in  gen¬ 
eral  outline,  and  the  guardian  of  the  law  should  enquire 
into  them  and  search  them  out,  combining  dancing  with 
music,  and  assigning  to  the  several  sacrificial  feasts  that 
which  is  suitable  to  them;  and  when  he  has  consecrated 
them  all  in  due  order,  he  shall  for  the  future  change  noth¬ 
ing,  whether  of  dance  or  song.  Thenceforward  the  city 
and  the  citizens  shall  continue  to  have  the  same  pleasures, 
themselves  being  as  far  as  possible  alike,  and  shall  live 
well  and  happily. 

I  have  described  the  dances  which  are  appropriate  to 
noble  bodies  and  generous  souls.  But  it  is  necessary  also 
to  consider  and  know  uncomely  persons  and  thoughts,  and 
those  which  are  intended  to  produce  laughter  in  comedy, 
and  have  a  comic  character  both  in  respect  to  style,  and 


Comic 
dances  have 
their  use; 
not  to  be 
indulged  in 
by  freemen. 


Tragedies 
also  to  be 
excluded, 
unless  per¬ 
mitted  after 
examination 
by  the 
magistrates. 


256  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

song,  and  dance,  whether  real  or  imitated.  For  serious 
things  cannot  be  understood  without  laughable  things,  nor 
opposites  at  all  without  opposites,  if  a  man  is  really  to  have 
intelligence  of  either;  but  he  cannot  carry  out  both  in 
action,  if  he  is  to  have  any  degree  of  virtue.  And  for  this 
very  reason  he  should  learn  them  both,  in  order  that  he 
may  not  in  ignorance  do  or  say  anything  which  is  ridicu¬ 
lous  and  out  of  place  —  he  should  command  slaves  and 
hired  strangers  to  imitate  such  things,  but  he  should  never 
take  any  serious  interest  in  them  himself,  nor  should  any 
freeman  or  freewoman  be  discovered  learning  them ;  and 
there  should  always  be  some  element  of  novelty  in  the 
imitation.  Let  these  then  be  laid  down,  both  in  law  and 
in  our  narrative,  as  the  regulations  of  laughable  amuse¬ 
ments  which  are  generally  called  comedy.  And,  if  any  of 
the  serious  or  tragic  poets,  as  they  are  termed,  come  to  us 
and  say  —  ‘  O  strangers,  may  we  go  to  your  city  and 
country  or  may  we  not,  and  shall  we  bring  with  us  our 
poetry  —  what  is  your  will  about  these  matters?’  How 
shall  we  answer  the  divine  men  ?  I  think  that  our  answer 
should  be  as  follows  :  —  Best  of  strangers,  we  will  say  to 
them,  we  also  according  to  our  ability  are  tragic  poets,  and 
our  tragedy  the  best  and  noblest ;  for  our  whole  state  is  an 
imitation  of  the  best  and  noblest  life,  which  we  affirm  to 
be  indeed  the  very  truth  of  tragedy.  You  are  poets  and 
we  are  poets,  your  rivals  and  antagonists  in  the  noblest  of 
dramas,  which  true  law  will  carry  out  in  act,  as  our  hope 
is.  Do  not  then  suppose  that  we  shall  all  in  a  moment 
allow  you  to  erect  your  stage  in  the  agora,  or  introduce  the 
fair  voice  of  your  actors,  speaking  above  our  own,  and  per¬ 
mit  you  to  harangue  our  women  and  children,  and  the 
mass  of  mankind,  about  our  institutions,  in  language  other 
than  our  own,  and  very  often  the  opposite  of  our  own. 
For  a  state  would  be  mad  which  gave  you  this  licence, 
until  the  magistrates  had  determined  whether  your  poetry 
might  be  recited,  and  was  fit  for  publication  or  not. 
Wherefore,  O  ye  sons  and  scions  of  the  softer  Muses,  first 
of  all  show  your  songs  to  the  magistrates,  and  let  them 
compare  them  with  our  own,  and  if  they  are  the  same  or 
better  we  will  give  you  a  chorus ;  but  if  not,  then,  my 
friends,  we  cannot.  Let  these,  then,  be  the  customs 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  257 


ordained  by  law  about  all  dances  and  the  teaching  of  them, 
and  let  matters  relating  to  slaves  be  separated  from  those 
relating  to  masters,  if  you  do  not  object. 

Cle.  We  can  have  no  hesitation  in  assenting  when  you 
put  the  matter  thus. 

Ath.  There  still  remains  three  studies  suitable  for  free¬ 
men.  Arithmetic  is  one  of  them ;  the  measurement  of 
length,  surface,  and  depth  is  the  second ;  and  the  third  has 
to  do  with  the  revolutions  of  the  stars  in  relation  to  one 
another.  Not  every  one  has  need  to  toil  through  all  these 
things  in  a  strictly  scientific  manner,  but  only  a  few,  and 
who  they  are  to  be,  we  will  hereafter  indicate  in  the  proper 
place ;  not  to  know  what  is  necessary  for  mankind  in  gen¬ 
eral,  and  what  is  the  truth,  is  disgraceful  to  every  one : 
and  yet  to  enter  into  these  matters  minutely  is  neither 
easy,  nor  at  all  possible  for  every  one;  but  there  is  some¬ 
thing  in  them  which  is  necessary  and  cannot  be  set  aside, 
and  probably  he  who  made  the  proverb  about  God  origi¬ 
nally  had  this  in  view  when  he  said,  ‘that  not  even  God 
himself  can  fight  against  necessity  ’ ;  —  he  meant,  if  I  am 
not  mistaken,  divine  necessity ;  for  as  to  the  human  neces¬ 
sities  of  which  men  often  speak  when  they  talk  in  this 
manner,  nothing  can  be  more  ridiculous  than  such  an 
application  of  the  words. 

Cle.  And  what  necessities  of  knowledge  are  there, 
Stranger,  which  are  divine  and  not  human  ? 

Ath.  I  conceive  them  to  be  those  of  which  he  who  has 
no  use  nor  any  knowledge  at  all  cannot  be  a  God,  or 
demi-god,  or  hero  to  mankind,  or  able  to  take  any  serious 
thought  or  charge  of  them.  And  very  unlike  a  divine 
man  would  he  be,  who  is  unable  to  count  one,  two,  three,  or 
to  distinguish  odd  and  even  numbers ;  or  is  unable  to 
count  at  all,  or  reckon  night  and  day,  and  who  is  totally 
unacquainted  with  the  revolution  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
and  the  other  stars.  There  would  be  great  folly  in  sup¬ 
posing  that  all  these  are  not  necessary  parts  of  knowledge 
to  him  who  intends  to  know  anything  about  the  highest 
kinds  of  knowledge;  but  which  these  are,  and  how  many 
there  are  of  them,  and  when  they  are  to  be  learned,  and 
what  is  to  be  learned  together  and  what  apart,  and  the 
whole  correlation  of  them,  must  be  rightly  apprehended 


Mathemati¬ 
cal  studies 
for  the  few. 


Mathe¬ 
matics  the 
basis  of  the 
highest 
kinds  of 
knowledge. 


258  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Edtication 


Extent  of 
and  method 
of  teaching 
arithmetic. 


first ;  and  these  leading  the  way  we  may  proceed  to  the 
other  parts  of  knowledge.  For  so  necessity  grounded  in 
nature  constrains  us,  against  which  we  say  that  no  God 
contends,  or  ever  will  contend. 

Cle.  I  think,  Stranger,  that  what  you  have  now  said  is 
very  true  and  agreeable  to  nature. 

Ath.  Yes,  Cleinias,  I  quite  agree  with  you.  But  it  is 
difficult  for  the  legislator  to  begin  with  these  studies ;  at  a 
more  convenient  time  we  will  make  regulations  for  them. 

Cle.  You  seem,  Stranger,  to  be  afraid  of  our  habitual 
ignorance  of  the  subject:  there  is  no  reason  why  that 
should  prevent  you  from  speaking  out. 

Ath.  I  certainly  am  afraid  of  the  difficulties  to  which 
you  allude,  but  I  am  still  more  afraid  of  those  who  apply 
themselves  to  this  sort  of  knowledge,  and  apply  themselves 
badly.  For  entire  ignorance  is  not  so  terrible  or  extreme 
an  evil,  and  is  far  from  being  the  greatest  of  all ;  too  much 
cleverness  and  too  much  learning,  accompanied  with  ill 
bringing  up,  are  far  more  fatal. 

Cle.  True. 

Ath.  All  freemen,  I  conceive,  should  learn  as  much  of 
these  branches  of  knowledge  as  every  child  in  Egypt  is 
taught  when  he  learns  his  alphabet.  In  that  country  arith¬ 
metical  games  have  been  actually  invented  for  the  use  of 
children,  which  they  learn  as  a  pleasure  and  amusement. 
They  have  to  distribute  apples  and  garlands,  using  the 
same  number  sometimes  for  a  larger  and  sometimes  for  a 
lesser  number  of  persons ;  and  they  arrange  pugilists  and 
wrestlers  as  they  pair  together  by  lot  or  remain  over,  and 
show  the  order  in  which  they  follow.  Another  mode  of 
amusing  them  is  by  distributing  vessels,  some  in  which 
gold,  brass,  silver,  and  the  like  are  mixed,  others  in  which 
they  are  unmixed ;  as  I  was  saying,  they  adapt  to  their 
amusement  the  numbers  in  common  use,  and  in  this  way 
make  more  intelligible  to  their  pupils  the  arrangements 
and  movements  of  armies  and  expeditions,  and  in  the 
management  of  a  household  they  make  people  more  use¬ 
ful  to  themselves,  and  more  wide  awake ;  and  again  in 
measurements  of  things  which  have  length,  and  breadth, 
and  depth,  they  free  us  from  that  natural  ignorance  of  all 
these  things  which  is  so  ludicrous  and  disgraceful. 


Educational  Theory:  Philosophical  View  259 

Cle.  What  kind  of  ignorance  do  you  mean  ? 

Ath.  O  my  dear  Cleinias,  I,  like  yourself,  have  late  in 
life  heard  with  amazement  of  our  ignorance  in  these  mat-  Need  of 
ters ;  to  me  we  appear  to  be  more  like  pigs  than  men,  and  mathemati- 
I  am  quite  ashamed,  not  only  of  myself,  but  of  all  Hellenes.  ^ 

Cle.  About  what  ?  Say,  Stranger,  what  you  mean  ?  Greeks. 

Ath.  I  will ;  or  rather  I  will  show  you  my  meaning  by 
a  question,  and  do  you  please  to  answer  me :  You  know,  I 
suppose,  what  length  is  ? 

Cle.  Certainly. 

Ath.  And  what  breadth  is  ? 

Cle.  To  be  sure. 

Ath.  And  you  know  that  these  are  two  distinct  things, 
and  that  there  is  a  third  thing  called  depth  ? 

Cle.  Of  course. 

Ath.  And  do  not  all  these  seem  to  you  to  be  commen¬ 
surable  with  one  another  ? 

Cle.  Yes. 

Ath.  That  is  to  say,  length  is  naturally  commensurable 
with  length,  and  breadth  with  breadth,  and  depth  in  like 
manner  with  depth  ? 

Cle.  Undoubtedly. 

Ath.  But  if  some  things  are  commensurable  and  others 
wholly  incommensurable,  and  you  think  that  all  things  are 
commensurable,  what  is  your  position  in  regard  to  them  ? 

Cle.  Clearly,  far  from  good.  ' 

Ath.  Concerning  length  and  breadth  when  compared 
with  depth,  or  breadth  and  length  when  compared  with 
one  another,  are  not  all  the  Hellenes  agreed  that  these 
are  commensurable  with  one  another  in  some  way  ? 

Cle.  Quite  true. 

Ath.  But  if  they  are  absolutely  incommensurable,  and 
yet  all  of  us  regard  them  as  commensurable,  have  we  not 
reason  to  be  ashamed  of  our  compatriots ;  and  might  we 
not  say  to  them :  —  O  ye  best  of  Hellenes,  is  not  this  one 
of  the  things  of  which  we  were  saying  that  not  to  know 
them  is  disgraceful,  and  of  which  to  know  only  what  is 
necessary  is  no  great  distinction  ? 

Cle.  Certainly. 

Ath.  And  there  are  other  things  akin  to  these,  in  which 
there  springs  up  other  errors  of  the  same  family. 


260  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Cle.  What  are  they  ? 

Ath.  The  natures  of  commensurable  and  incommen- 
surable  quantities  in  their  relation  to  one  another.  A  man 
who  is  good  for  anything  ought  to  be  able,  when  he  thinks, 
to  distinguish  them ;  and  different  persons  should  compete 
with  one  another  in  asking  questions,  which  will  be  a  far 
better  and  more  graceful  way  of  passing  their  time  than 
the  old  man’s  game  of  draughts. 

Cle.  I  dare  say;  and  these  pastimes  are  not  so  very 
unlike  a  game  of  draughts. 

Ath.  And  these,  as  I  maintain,  Cleinias,  are  the  studies 
which  our  youth  ought  to  learn,  for  they  are  innocent  and 
not  difficult ;  the  learning  of  them  will  be  an  amusement, 
and  they  will  benefit  the  state.  If  any  one  is  of  another 
mind,  let  him  say  what  he  has  to  say. 

Cle.  Of  course  you  are  right. 

Ath.  Then  if  these  studies  are  such  as  we  say,  we  will 
include  them ;  if  not,  they  shall  be  excluded. 

Cle.  Assuredly :  but  may  we  not  now,  Stranger,  pre¬ 
scribe  these  studies  as  necessary,  and  so  fill  up  the  lacunae 
of  our  laws  ? 

Ath.  They  shall  be  regarded  as  pledges  which  may  be 
refused  hereafter  by  the  state,  if  they  do  not  please  either 
us  who  impose  them,  or  you  upon  whom  they  are  imposed. 

Cle.  A  fair  condition. 

Ath.  Next  let  us  see  whether  we  are  willing  that  the 
Astronomy,  study  of  astronomy  shall  or  shall  not  be  proposed  for  our 
youth. 

Cle.  Proceed. 

Ath.  Here  occurs  a  strange  phenomenon,  which  cer¬ 
tainly  cannot  in  any  point  of  view  be  tolerated. 

Cle.  To  what  are  you  referring? 

Ath.  Men  say  that  we  ought  not  to  enquire  into  the 
supreme  God  and  the  nature  of  the  universe,  nor  busy  our¬ 
selves  in  searching  out  the  causes  of  things,  and  that  such 
enquiries  are  impious ;  whereas  the  very  opposite  is  the 
truth. 

Cle.  What  do  you  mean  ? 

Ath.  Perhaps  what  I  am  saying  may  seem  paradoxical, 
and  at  variance  with  the  usual  language  of  age.  But  when 
any  one  has  any  good  and  true  notion  which  is  for  the 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  261 

advantage  of  the  state  and  in  every  way  acceptable  to 
God,  he  cannot  abstain  from  expressing  it. 

Cle.  Your  words  are  reasonable  enough ;  but  shall  we 
find  any  good  or  true  notion  about  the  stars  ? 

Ath.  My  good  friends,  at  this  day  all  of  us  Hellenes 
speak  falsely,  if  I  may  use  such  an  expression,  of  those 
great  Gods,  the  Sun  and  the  Moon. 

Cle.  What  is  the  falsehood  ? 

Ath.  We  say  that  they  and  divers  other  stars  do  not 
keep  the  same  path,  and  we  call  them  planets  or  wanderers. 

Cle.  Very  true,  Stranger;  and  in  the  course  of  my  life 
I  have  often  myself  seen  the  morning  star  and  the  evening 
star  and  divers  others  not  proceeding  in  their  own  path, 
but  wandering  out  of  their  path  in  all  manner  of  ways,  and 
I  have  seen  the  sun  and  moon  doing  what  we  all  know  that 
they  do. 

Ath.  Just  so,  Megillus  and  Cleinias,  and  I  maintain  that 
our  citizens  and  our  youth  ought  to  learn  about  the  nature 
of  the  Gods  in  heaven,  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  offer  sacri¬ 
fices  and  pray  to  them  in  pious  language,  and  not  to  blas¬ 
pheme  about  them. 

Cle.  There  you  are  right,  if  such  a  knowledge  be  only 
attainable ;  and  if  we  are  wrong  in  our  mode  of  speaking 
now,  and  can  be  better  instructed  and  learn  to  use  better 
language,  then  I  quite  agree  wkh  you  that  such  a  degree 
of  knowledge  as  will  enable  us  to  speak  rightly  should,  if 
attainable,  be  acquired  by  us.  And  now  do  you  try  to  ex¬ 
plain  to  us  your  whole  meaning,  and  we,  on  our  part,  will 
endeavor  to  understand  you. 

Ath.  There  is  some  difficulty  in  understanding  my 
meaning,  but  not  a  very  great  one,  nor  will  any  great 
length  of  time  be  required  ;  and  of  this  I  am  myself  a  proof ; 
for  I  did  not  know  these  things  long  ago,  nor  in  the  days 
of  my  youth  ;  and  yet  I  can  explain  them  to  you  in  a  brief 
space  of  time,  whereas  if  they  had  been  difficult  I  could 
certainly  never  have  explained  them  all,  old  as  I  am,  to  old 
men  like  yourselves. 

Cle.  True;  but  what  is  this  study  which  you  describe 
as  wonderful  and  fitting  for  youth  to  learn,  but  of  which 
we  are  ignorant  ?  Try  and  explain  the  nature  of  it  to  us  as 
clearly  as  you  can. 


Religious 
purpose  in 
its  study. 


Education  of 
“The  Laws” 
to  terminate 
in  religion. 


262  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Ath.  I  will.  For,  O  my  good  friends,  that  other  doc¬ 
trine  about  the  wandering  of  the  sun  and  the  moon  and  the 
other  stars  is  not  the  truth,  but  the  very  reverse  of  the  truth. 
Each  of  them  moves  in  the  same  path  —  not  in  many  paths, 
but  in  one  only,  which  is  circular,  and  the  varieties  are 
Qnly  apparent.  Nor  are  we  right  in  supposing  that 
the  swiftest  of  them  is  the  slowest,  nor  conversely,  that 
the  slowest  is  the  quickest.  And  if  what  I  say  is  true, 
only  just  imagine  that  we  had  a  similar  notion  about  horses 
running  at  Olympia,  or  about  men  who  ran  in  the  long 
course,  and  that  we  addressed  the  swiftest  as  the  slowest 
and  the  slowest  as  the  swiftest,  and  sang  the  praises  of  the 
vanquished  as  though  he  were  the  victor,  —  in  that  case 
our  praises  would  not  be  true,  nor  very  agreeable  to  the 
runners,  though  they  be  but  men ;  and  now,  to  commit  the 
same  error  about  the  Gods  which  would  have  been  ludi¬ 
crous  and  erroneous  in  the  case  of  men,  —  is  not  that  ludi¬ 
crous  and  erroneous  ? 

Cle.  Worse  than  ludicrous,  I  should  say. 

Ath.  At  all  events,  the  Gods  cannot  like  us  to  be 
spreading  a  false  report  of  them. 

Cle.  Most  true,  if  such  is  the  fact. 

Ath.  And  if  we  can  show  that  such  is  really  the  fact, 
then  all  these  matters  ought  to  be  learned  so  far  as  is 
necessary  for  the  avoidance  of  impiety ;  but  if  we  cannot, 
they  may  be  let  alone,  and  let  this  be  our  decision. 

Cle.  Very  good. 

Ath.  Enough  of  laws  relating  to  education  and  learn¬ 
ing.  But  hunting  and  similar  pursuits  in  like  manner 
claim  our  attention.  For  the  legislator  appears  to  have  a 
duty  imposed  upon  him  which  goes  beyond  mere  legisla¬ 
tion.  There  is  something  over  and  above  law  which  lies 
in  a  region  between  admonition  and  law,  and  has  several 
times  occurred  to  us  in  the  course  of  discussion ;  for  ex¬ 
ample,  in  the  education  of  very  young  children  there  were 
things,  as  we  maintain,  which  are  not  to  be  defined,  and  to 
regard  them  as  matters  of  positive  law  is  a  great  absurdity. 
Now,  our  laws  and  the  whole  constitution  of  our  state  hav¬ 
ing  been  thus  delineated,  the  praise  of  the  virtuous  citizen 
is  not  complete  when  he  is  described  as  the  person  who 
serves  the  laws  best  and  obeys  them  most,  but  the  highest 


Educational  Theory :  Philosophical  View  263 


form  of  praise  is  that  which  describes  him  as  the  good 
citizen  who  goes  through  life  undefiled  and  is  obedient  to 
the  words  of  the  legislator,  both  when  he  is  giving  laws 
and  when  he  assigns  praise  and  blame.  This  is  the  truest 
word  that  can  be  spoken  in  praise  of  a  citizen ;  and  the 
true  legislator  ought  not  only  to  write  his  laws,  but  also  to 
interweave  with  them  all  such  things  as  seem  to  him 
honourable  and  dishonourable.  And  the  perfect  citizen 
ought  to  seek  to  strengthen  these  no  less  than  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  law  which  are  sanctioned  by  punishments.  I  will 
adduce  an  example  which  will  clear  up  my  meaning. 
Hunting  is  of  wide  extent,  and  has  a  name  under  which 
many  things  are  included,  for  there  is  a  hunting  of  crea¬ 
tures  in  the  water,  and  of  creatures  in  the  air ;  and  there  is 
a  great  deal  of  hunting  of  land  animals  of  all  sorts,  and 
not  of  wild  beasts  only;  the  hunting  after  man  is  also 
worthy  of  consideration ;  there  is  the  hunting  after  him  in 
war,  and  there  is  often  a  hunting  after  him  in  the  way  of 
friendship,  which  is  praised  and  also  blamed ;  and  there 
is  thieving,  and  the  hunting  which  is  practised  by  robbers, 
and  that  of  armies  against  armies.  Now  the  legislator,  in 
laying  down  laws  about  hunting,  can  neither  abstain  from 
noting  these  things,  nor  can  he  make  threatening  ordi¬ 
nances  which  will  assign  rules  and  penalties  about  all  of 
them.  What  is  he  to  do  ?  He  will  have  to  praise  and 
blame  hunting  with  a  view  to  the  discipline  and  exercise  of 
youth.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  the  young  man  must 
listen  obediently  ;  neither  pleasure  nor  pain  should  hinder 
him,  and  he  should  regard  as  his  standard  of  action  the 
praises  and  injunctions  of  the  legislator  rather  than  the 
punishments  which  he  imposes  by  law.  This  being  pre¬ 
mised,  there  will  follow  next  in  order  moderate  praise  and 
censure  of  hunting;  the  praise  being  assigned  to  that 
which  will  make  the  souls  of  young  men  better,  and  the 
censure  to  that  which  has  the  opposite  effect.  And  now 
let  us  address  young  men  in  the  form  of  a  pious  wish  for 
their  welfare  :  O,  my  friends,  we  will  say  to  them,  may  no 
desire  or  love  of  hunting  in  the  sea,  or  of  angling  or  of 
catching  the  creatures  in  the  sea,  ever  take  possession 
of  you,  either  when  you  are  awake  or  when  you  are  asleep, 
by  hook  or  with  weels,  which  latter  is  a  very  lazy  contri- 


Hunting  as 
an 

educational 

means. 


Kinds  of 

hunting 

forbidden. 


The  law 

concerning 

hunting. 


264  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

vance ;  and  let  not  any  desire  of  catching  men  and  of  piracy 
by  sea  enter  into  your  souls  and  make  you  cruel  and  law¬ 
less  hunters.  And  as  to  the  desire  of  thieving  in  town  or 
country,  may  it  never  enter  into  your  most  passing 
thoughts;  nor  let  the  insidious  fancy  of  catching  birds, 
which  is  hardly  worthy  of  freemen,  come  into  the  head  of 
any  youth.  There  remains  therefore  for  our  athletes  only 
the  hunting  and  catching  of  land  animals,  of  which  the 
one  sort  is  called  hunting  by  night,  in  which  the  hunters 
sleep  in  turn  and  are  lazy  ;  this  is  not  to  be  commended  any 
more  than  that  which  has  intervals  of  rest,  in  which  the 
wild  strength  of  beasts  is  subdued  by  nets  and  snares, 
and  not  by  the  victory  of  a  laborious  spirit.  Thus,  only 
the  best  kind  of  hunting  is  allowed  at  all  —  that  of  quad¬ 
rupeds,  which  is  carried  on  with  horses  and  dogs  and  men’s 
own  persons,  and  they  get  the  victory  over  the  animals  by 
running  them  down  and  striking  them  and  hurling  at  them, 
those  who  have  a  care  of  godlike  manhood  taking  them 
with  their  own  hands.  The  praise  and  blame  which  is 
assigned  to  all  these  things  has  now  been  declared ;  and 
let  the  law  be  as  follows  :  Let  no  one  hinder  our  sacred 
hunters  from  following  the  chase  wherever  and  whitherso¬ 
ever  they  will ;  but  the  nightly  hunter,  who  trusts  to  his 
nets  and  springs,  shall  not  be  allowed  to  hunt  anywhere. 
The  fowler  in  the  mountains  and  waste  places  shall  be  per¬ 
mitted,  but  on  cultivated  ground  and  on  consecrated  wilds 
he  shall  not  be  permitted  ;  and  any  one  who  meets  him 
may  stop  him.  As  to  the  hunter  in  waters,  he  may  hunt 
anywhere  except  in  harbours  or  sacred  streams  or  marshes 
or  pools,  provided  only  that  he  do  not  trouble  the  water 
with  poisonous  mixtures.  And  now  we  may  say  that  all 
our  enactments  about  education  are  complete. 

Cle.  Very  good. 


VI.  THE  SCIENTIFIC  VIEW  OF  EDUCATION 


The  Period  and  the  Authority.  —  Aristotle  was  the  last 
of  the  great  contributors  to  Greek  educational  theory,  and 
his  life  (384-322  b.c.)  forms  a  connecting  link  between 
the  earlier  theorists  and  the  later  cosmopolitan  period 
which  begins  with  the  Macedonian  supremacy.  In  phi¬ 
losophy  Aristotle  represents  the  culmination  of  the  move¬ 
ment  which  passed  through  successive  stages  with  the 
Sophists,  Socrates  and  Plato.  In  his  specific  treatment 
of  the  subject  of  education  he  makes  no  great  advance 
beyond  Plato,  though  in  later  ages  educational  method 
and  subject-matter  are  profoundly  influenced  through  the 
Organon  and  Metaphysics.  It  is  only  with  this  specific 
treatment  of  education,  in  which  he  presents  his  own 
views,  that  the  present  discussion  deals. 

The  adult  life  of  Aristotle  falls  into  three  periods.  The 
first  is  that  from  the  seventeenth  to  the  thirty-seventh 
years  of  his  life,  during  which  time  he  was  under  the  in¬ 
struction  of  Plato,  or  closely  connected  with  the  work  of 
the  Academy.  Then  it  was  that  he  showed  opposition 
to  the  teachings  of  the  master.  Some  of  Aristotle’s  writ¬ 
ings  not  now  extant  raise  for  debate  the  chief  doctrine  of 
the  Platonic  school,  though  the  form  of  these  writings  is 
supposed  to  have  been  wholly  in  imitation  of  that  of  the 
master  of  the  dialogue.  This  lack  of  orthodoxy  and  per¬ 
haps  of  intellectual  sympathy  led  Aristotle  to  leave 
Athens  at  the  death  of  Plato  in  347  b.c.,  and  for  twelve 

265 


266  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

years  thereafter,  in  Asia  Minor  and  Macedonia,  he  devoted 
himself  to  study  and  investigation.  Some  portion  of  the 
latter  years  of  this  period  was  devoted  to  the  education 
of  the  young  Alexander.  While  there  are  absolutely  no 
details  left  to  modern  times  concerning  the  nature  of 
these  duties  and  the  manner  in  which  they  were  per¬ 
formed,  it  has  been  suggested  that  Aristotle’s  chief  in¬ 
fluence  on  Greek  education  was  through  instilling  into 
the  mind  of  the  future  conqueror  the  ideas  that  led  to 
the  Hellenization  of  the  East.  Certain  it  is  that  the 
scheme  of  education  outlined  in  the  Politics  is  for  the 
narrow  limit  of  the  city  state,  and  that  it  was  a  scheme 
which  had  little  or  no  immediate  practical  influence  on 
Greek  life.  In  335  Aristotle  returned  to  Athens  to  es¬ 
tablish  in  the  Lyceum  his  own  school  of  philosophy, 
since  the  contrast  between  his  own  thought  and  that  of 
the  Academicians  had  now  become  more  marked,  both 
because  his  own  ideas  and  method  had  developed,  and  be¬ 
cause  the  work  of  the  Academy  had  now  degenerated 
into  mere  exposition  and  comment.  Here  he  continued 
to  teach  for  eighteen  years.  The  aim  of  Aristotle  was 
broader  than  that  of  the  Platonic  or  of  the  other  schools ; 
it  was  nothing  less  than  to  produce  an  encyclopaedia  of  all 
the  sciences,  —  an  organization  of  all  human  knowledge. 
During  this  period  was  produced  the  substance  of  the 
Aristotelian  writings  as  we  know  them  now.  The  char¬ 
acter,  order,  and  origin  of  these  writings  are  all  matters 
of  debate.  Leaving  out  of  the  question  the  pseudo-Aris¬ 
totelian  productions,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  not  one 
of  the  works  as  we  now  have  them  is  complete ;  that 
some  of  them  are  rather  compilations  or  combinations  of 
monographs  than  continuous  treatises ;  that  some  contain 


Theory  of  Education:  Scientific  View  267 

parts  or  whole  chapters  that  are  mere  summaries  by  pupils  ; 
that  some  are  probably  nothing  more  than  very  full  notes 
taken  by  students  at  Aristotle’s  lectures.  Even  concerning 
the  work  of  immediate  interest  to  us,  Jowett  suggests  that 
“  we  cannot  be  sure  that  any  single  sentence  of  the  Politics 
proceeded  from  the  pen  of  Aristotle.”  The  whole  ques¬ 
tion  of  authorship  is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  the  list  of 
the  146  Aristotelian  writings,  made  by  the  librarian  of  the 
great  library  at  Alexander  about  220  b.c.,  does  not  contain 
the  name  of  a  single  one  of  his  works,  at  least  under  the 
title  by  which  we  now  know  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
concerning  the  accepted  works,  it  is  quite  as  generally 
admitted  that  the  substance,  the  spirit  and  the  general 
form,  if  not  the  exact  wording,  are  wholly  Aristotelian. 
Where  the  efforts  of  the  school  supplemented  those 
of  the  master,  they  were  wholly  under  the  dominance 
and  direction  of  the  latter,  so  that  the  same  may  be  said 
of  resulting  collaborations.  The  fragmentary  condition 
of  some  of  the  work,  such  as  the,treatment  of  education, 
is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  Aristotle  purposely 
left  the  theme  incomplete  in  presentation,  with  the  ex¬ 
pectation,  and  in  some  places  with  the  explicit  promise, 
of  a  return  to  the  subject.  This  incompleteness,  as  well 
as  the  form  in  which  some  of  the  works  have  come  down 
to  us,  is  due  to  the  manner  of  publication.  This  consisted 
merely  in  presentation  through  lectures  in  the  schools,  with 
the  multiplication  of  texts  through  notes  or  more  exact 
copies.  It  was  therefore  a  process  continuing  over  a  con¬ 
siderable  space  of  time,  rather  than  an  event  of  a  given 
date.  That  during  the  period  of  publication  the  author’s 
ideas  would  develop  is  evidenced  by  the  Republic  and  the 
Laws ,  as  well  as  by  the  Politics.  At  Aristotle’s  death  it 


268  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

appears  that  the  work  of  the  Peripatetic  school  consisted 
largely  in  collecting  and  editing  the  master’s  works,  and  in 
some  respects  in  completing  them  by  a  combination  of  frag¬ 
ments.  The  interest  of  the  school  was  largely  in  those  works 
of  the  philosopher  produced  during  his  headship  of  the 
Lyceum.  There  does  not  seem  to  have  been  any  such 
multiplication  of  copies  of  the  works  as  was  the  case 
with  the  other  philosophical  schools.  Some  thirty-five 
years  after  the  death  of  Aristotle,  the  head  of  the  school, 
who  fell  heir  to  the  works,  removed  them  to  Asia  Minor. 
Shortly  after  this,  to  save  them  from  destruction,  they 
were  hidden  in  a  vault,  and  there  remained  lost  to  the 
world  until  recovered  a  century  and  a  half  later.  They 
were  then  restored  to  Greece  and  later  transferred  to 
Rome.  This  indicates  in  part  the  reason  why  these  edu¬ 
cational  writings  had  no  immediate  influence  upon  Greek 
education. 

The  Politics  contains  Aristotle’s  specific  treatment  of  edu¬ 
cation  in  the  main  ;  though  the  discussions  of  the  general 
purpose  of  education  could  be  supplemented  with  selections 
from  the  Ethics ,  and  the  discussion  of  the  place  of  litera¬ 
ture  in  education  with  selections  from  the  Poetics.  It  is 
indicative  of  the  importance  of  the  subject  of  education  in 
Grecian  thought  that  it  should  form  an  integral  part  of  the 
science  of  politics,  — -  a  fact  to  be  gathered  from  the  Re¬ 
public  and  the  Lazos ,  as  well  as  from  the  Politics.  The 
Politics  differs  from  the  Republic  and  the  Lazvs  in  being 
primarily  a  scientific  investigation  in  comparative  politics. 
In  addition  to  being  an  inductive  study  based  on  his  pre¬ 
vious  collection  of  constitutions,  now  lost,  it  contains 
many  views  that  are  simply  a  part  of  the  ordinary  aris¬ 
tocratic  view  of  the  Grecians,  especially  of  those  not  in 


Theory  of  Education:  Scientific  View  269 

sympathy  with  the  Athenians,  and  other  views,  largely 
metaphysical,  that  are  made  to  appear  scientific  by  refer¬ 
ring  them  to  “nature.”  The  discussion  of  education,  how¬ 
ever,  is  for  the  most  part  a  scientific  exposition  of  the 
actual  practices  of  Greek  states,  especially  the  Athenian, 
tested  by  Aristotle’s  standard  of  the  natural.  This  stand¬ 
ard,  while  in  form  often  metaphysical,  is  nevertheless  de¬ 
rived  from  a  wide  comparative  study  of  existing  practices. 

Aristotle  holds  that  there  are  three  normal  forms  of 
government,  —  monarchy,  aristocracy,  and  the  constitu¬ 
tional  or  republican ;  and  that  there  are  perversions  of 
each.  Of  the  three  he  holds  that  the  monarchical  is  best 
if  not  perverted,  but  that  it  is  the  most  liable  to  abuse ; 
that  the  republican  is  least  liable  to  perversion,  and 
hence  the  one  to  be  recommended.  It  is  for  this  best 
practicable  form  of  government  that  he  elaborates  his  ap¬ 
proved  scheme  of  education.  One  must  bear  in  mind  the 
fact  that  the  state  is  still  the  very  restricted  city  state  of  the 
Greeks.  Aristotle  sees  the  possibility  of  the  larger  nation 
and  of  the  confederacy;  but  both  of, these  have  for  their  aims 
mere  expediency,  while  the  city  state  alone  can  aim  at  vir¬ 
tue.  As  a  further  essential  to  this  ideal  state  the  industrial 
and  commercial  classes,  as  well  as  the  slave  population, 
are  excluded  from  citizenship.  Only  those  who  are  re¬ 
lieved  from  the  necessity  of  all  economic  activities  can 
become  good  citizens.  Those  engaged  in  the  practical  or 
industrial  life  are  to  be  educated  by  participation  in  the 
occupations  which  they  are  to  follow,  —  in  other  words, 
by  apprenticeship.  All  such  persons  need  a  practical 
education  only,  and  a  practical  education  calls  for  a  train¬ 
ing,  but  for  no  instruction. 

The  only  education  discussed  in  the  Politics  is  the  liberal 


2  jo  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

education  necessary  as  a  preparation  for  citizenship  in  this 
state  wherein  all  citizens  are  successively  ruled  and  rulers. 
It  is  from  this  thought  of  the  interchange  of  rulers  and 
ruled  that  the  consideration  of  education  departs.  The 
remainder  of  the  seventh  and  all  of  the  eighth  book  are 
devoted  to  this  discussion,  which,  however,  is  only  frag¬ 
mentary.  Education  in  infancy  and  childhood  are  treated 
of,  but  the  passage  closes  without  any  mention  of  the  most 
important  phase  of  education,  that  of  the  immediate  prepa¬ 
ration  of  youth  for  citizenship.  This  is  the  stage  of  edu¬ 
cation  concerning  which  there  was  then  the  greatest  interest, 
and  in  which  there  had  occurred  the  most  radical  changes. 
Either  the  latter  portion  of  the  treatise  has  been  lost  to 
modern  times,  or  the  author  left  it  incomplete,  with  the 
expectation  of  returning  to  the  subject. 

On  the  training  of  infancy,  the  views  of  Aristotle  do  not 
depart  materially  from  the  approved  custom  at  Athens  or 
from  the  views  of  Plato,  though  he  rejects  the  commu¬ 
nistic  scheme  and  insists  upon  the  importance  of  the  family. 
Of  the  physical  well-being  of  the  child,  great  care  is  to  be 
taken,  this  care  extending  even  to  prenatal  regulations. 
The  child’s  morals  are  to  be  well  guarded  in  various 
ways,  amongst  others  by  exclusion  from  contact  with  public 
life,  and  by  the  care  of  pedagogues  and  of  guardians 
of  public  education  —  an  institution  borrowed  from  the 
Spartans.  Concerning  the  education  of  childhood  and 
youth,  the  periods  from  seven  to  fourteen  and  from  fourteen 
to  twenty,  Aristotle  again  is  substantially  in  accord  with 
accepted  Grecian  practices.  The  greater  part  of  the  eighth 
book  is  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  gymnastic  and  music  as 
the  component  parts  of  the  curriculum.  The  views  here 
expressed  are  essentially  those  of  the  thoughtful  Greek. 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View  271 

Neither  gymnastic  nor  music  should  aim  to  produce  the 
expert,  but  should  be  wholly  liberalizing  in  their  purpose. 
This  exposition  is  the  clearest  statement  to  be  found  of  the 
use  of  music  in  Greek  education.  The  approved  uses  are 
for  instruction,  for  purgation,  and  for  leisure  and  recrea¬ 
tion.  To  music  and  gymnastic  are  added  drawing  and 
letters  as  component  parts  of  the  curriculum,  though  little 
consideration  is  accorded  either.  In  regard  to  letters 
Aristotle  rejects  the  conclusions  of  Plato  concerning  Homer 
and  the  drama,  but  he  fails  to  give  any  presentation  of  his 
own  ideas  concerning  the  proper  scope  of  literary  instruc¬ 
tion.  1  his  omission  is  one  of  the  best  evidences  of  the 
fragmentary  nature  of  the  Politics.  In  all  probability  he 
would  have  made  letters  include  the  remainder  of  the 
liberal  arts,  thus  completing  the  liberal  education  so  far  as 
it  related  to  institutionalized  instruction. 

No  correct  concept  of  Aristotle’s  views  of  education  can 
be  gained,  unless  it  be  recognized  that,  as  with  Plato  and 
Greek  thinkers  in  general,  the  state  itself  is  by  him  identi¬ 
fied  with  education.  The  state  is  not  only  the  end  of 
education  but,  in  every  detail,  a  means  to  education. 
While  Aristotle  has  no  place  for  the  guardians  of  the 
Platonic  state,  and  consequently  no  elaborate  philosophical 
education  looking  to  the  production  of  such  a  class,  yet 
civic  and  military  activities  are  to  be  organized  for  educa¬ 
tional  ends,  and  the  education  of  the  citizen  does  not 
cease  until  he  has  fully  participated  therein.  These  social 
activities  are  of  two  general  classes :  the  one  practical  and 
executive,  the  other  deliberative  and  advisory.  After  the 
age  of  twenty-one  the  young  men  are  to  engage  in  active 
civic  and  military  duties.  With  their  growing  experience 
these  are  gradually  to  be  exchanged  for  those  that  are 


Education  as 
the  basis 
of  stable 
government. 


272  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

advisory  and  judicial.  Much  of  this  time  is  to  be  spent  in 
cultured  leisure,  and  finally  all  of  it  is  to  be  devoted  to  the 
life  of  contemplation.  In  this  way  the  end  of  the  state,  as 
found  in  the  happiness  of  the  individuals  composing  it,  is 
to  be  attained.  This  happiness  of  the  individual  is  largely 
intellectual.  Thus  the  problem  of  Greek  politics  and 
education  is  solved  by  the  gradual  development  into  the 
contemplative  or  intellectual  life;  neither  is  to  be  separated 
from  the  activities  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  state. 


Selections  from  the  Politics  of  Aristotle 

book  v 

9.  But  of  all  the  things  which  I  have  mentioned  that 
which  most  contributes  to  the  permanence  of  constitutions  is 
the  adaptation  of  education  to  the  form  of  government,  and 
yet  in  our  own  day  this  principle  is  universally  neglected. 
The  best  laws,  though  sanctioned  by  every  citizen  of  the 
state,  will  be  of  no  avail  unless  the  young  are  trained  by 
habit  and  education  in  the  spirit  of  the  constitution,  if  the 
laws  are  democratical,  democratically,  or  oligarchically,  if 
the  laws  are  oligarchical.  For  there  may  be  a  want  of 
self-discipline  in  states  as  well  as  in  individuals.  Now,  to 
have  been  educated  in  the  spirit  of  the  constitution  is  not 
to  perform  the  actions  in  which  oligarchs  or  democrats 
delight,  but  those  by  which  the  existence  of  an  oligarchy 
or  of  a  democracy  is  made  possible.  Whereas  among 
ourselves  the  sons  of  the  ruling  class  in  an  oligarchy  live 
in  luxury,  but  the  sons  of  the  poor  are  hardened  by  exer¬ 
cise  and  toil,  and  hence  they  are  both  more  inclined  and 
better  able  to  make  a  revolution.  And  in  democracies 
of  the  more  extreme  type  there  has  arisen  a  false  idea  of 
freedom  which  is  contradictory  to  the  true  interests  of  the 
state.  For  two  principles  are  characteristic  of  democracy, 
the  government  of  the  majority  and  freedom.  Men  think 
that  what  is  just  is  equal;  and  that  equality  is  the  suprem¬ 
acy  of  the  popular  will ;  and  that  freedom  and  equality 


273 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View 

mean  the  doing  what  a  man  likes.  In  such  democracies 
every  one  lives  as  he  pleases,  or  in  the  words  of  Euripides, 
‘according  to  his  fancy.’  But  this  is  all  wrong;  men 
should  not  think  it  slavery  to  live  according  to  the  rule  of 
the  constitution  ;  for  it  is  their  salvation. 

******* 


BOOK  VII 

13.  It  follows  then  from  what  has  been  said  that  some 
things  the  legislator  must  find  ready  to  his  hand  in  a  state, 
others  he  must  provide.  And  therefore  we  can  only  say : 
May  our  state  be  constituted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
blessed  with  the  goods  of  which  fortune  disposes  (for  we 
acknowledge  her  power):  whereas  virtue  and  goodness  in 
the  state  are  not  a  matter  of  chance  but  the  result  of  knowl¬ 
edge  and  purpose.  A  city  can  be  virtuous  only  when  the 
citizens  who  have  a  share  in  the  government  are  virtuous, 
and  in  our  state  all  the  citizens  share  in  the  government ; 
let  us.  then  enquire  how  a  man  becomes  virtuous.  For 
even  if  we  could  suppose  all  the  citizens  to  be  virtuous, 
and  not  each  of  them,  yet  the  latter  would  be  better,  for 
in  the  virtue  of  each  the  virtue  of  all  is  involved. 

There  are  three  things  which  make  men  good  and  vir¬ 
tuous  :  these  are  nature,  habit,  reason.  In  the  first  place, 
every  one  must  be  born  a  man  and  not  some  other  animal ; 
in  the  second  place,  he  must  have  a  certain  character, 
both  of  body  and  soul.  But  some  qualities  there  is  no  use 
in  having  at  birth,  for  they  are  altered  by  habit,  and  there 
are  some  gifts  of  nature  which  may  be  turned  by  habit  to 
good  or  bad.  Most  animals  lead  a  life  of  nature,  although 
in  lesser  particulars  some  are  influenced  by  habit  as  well. 
Man  has  reason,  in  addition,  and  man  only.  Wherefore 
nature,  habit,  reason  must  be  in  harmony  with  one  another 
(for  they  do  not  always  agree);  men  do  many  things  against 
habit  and  nature,  if  reason  persuades  them  that  they  ought. 
We  have  already  determined  what  natures  are  likely  to  be 
most,  easily  moulded  by  the  hands  of  the  legislator.  All 
else  is  the  work  of  education ;  we  learn  some  things  by 
habit  and  some  by  instruction. 

14.  Since  every  political  society  is  composed  of  rulers 


Virtue  and 
goodness 
of  a  state 
depend 
upon  virtue 
and  good¬ 
ness  of 
individual 
citizens. 


Three 
elements  of 
virtue : 

(1)  nature, 

(2)  habit, 

(3)  reason. 


Rulers  and 
ruled  are  to 
interchange. 


Relation  to 
education. 
All  must 
know  both 
how  to  com¬ 
mand  and 
how  to  obey. 


274  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

and  subjects,  let  us  consider  whether  the  relations  of  one 
to  the  other  should  interchange  or  be  permanent.  For  the 
education  of  the  citizens  will  necessarily  vary  with  the 
answer  given  to  this  question.  Now,  if  some  men  excelled 
others  in  the  same  degree  in  which  gods  and  heroes  are 
supposed  to  excel  mankind  in  general,  having  in  the  first 
place  a  great  advantage  even  in  their  bodies,  and  secondly 
in  their  minds,  so  that  the  superiority  of  the  governors 
over  their  subjects  was  patent  and  undisputed,  it  would 
clearly  be  better  that  once  for  all  the  one  class  should  rule 
and  the  others  serve.  But  since  this  is  unattainable,  and 
kings  have  no  marked  superiority  over  their  subjects,  such  as 
Scylax1  affirms  to  be  found  among  the  Indians,  it  is  obviously 
necessary  on  many  grounds  that  all  the  citizens  alike  should 
take  their  turn  in  governing  and  being  governed.  Equal¬ 
ity  consists  in  the  same  treatment  of  similar  persons,  and 
no  government  can  stand  which  is  not  founded  upon  justice. 
For  (if  the  government  be  unjust)  every  one  in  the  coun¬ 
try  2  unites  with  the  governed  in  the  desire  to  have  a  revo¬ 
lution,  and  it  is  an  impossibility  that  the  members  of  the 
government  can  be  so  numerous  as  to  be  stronger  than  all 
their  enemies  put  together.  Yet  that  governors  should 
excel  their  subjects  is  undeniable.  How  all  this  is  to  be 
effected,  and  in  what  way  they  will  respectively  share  in 
the  government,  the  legislator  has  to  consider.  The  sub¬ 
ject  has  been  already  mentioned.  Nature  herself  has 
given  the  principle  of  choice  when  she  made  a  difference 
between  old  and  young  (though  they  are  really  the  same 
in  kind),  of  whom  she  fitted  the  one  to  govern  and  the 
others  to  be  governed.  No  one  takes  offence  at  being 
governed  when  he  is  young,  nor  does  he  think  himself 
better  than  his  governors,  especially  if  he  will  enjoy  the 
same  privilege  when  he  reaches  the  required  age. 

We  conclude  that  from  one  point  of  view  governors  and 
governed  are  identical,  and  from  another  different.  And 
therefore  their  education  must  be  the  same  and  also  differ¬ 
ent.  For  he  who  would  learn  to  command  well  must,  as 
men  say,  first  of  all  learn  to  obey.  As  I  observed  in  the 

1  An  ancient  geographer;  cf.  Herodotus,  IV.  44. 

2  /.<?.  the  periceci. 


275 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View 

first  part  of  this  treatise,  there  is  one  rule  which  is  for  the 
sake  of  the  rulers  and  another  rule  which  is  for  the  sake 
of  the  ruled;  the  former  is  a  despotic,  the  latter  a  free 
government.  Some  commands  differ  not  in  the  thing 
commanded,  but  in  the  intention  with  which  they  are 
imposed.  Wherefore,  many  apparently  menial  offices  are 
an  honour  to  the  free  youth  by  whom  they  are  performed ; 
for  actions  do  not  differ  as  honourable  or  dishonourable 
in  themselves  so  much  as  in  the  end  and  intention  of 
them.  But  since  we  say  that  the  virtue  of  the  citizen 
and  ruler  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  good  man,  and 
that  the  same  person  must  first  be  a  subject  and  then  a 
ruler,  the  legislator  has  to  see  that  they  become  good  men, 
and  by  what  means  this  may  be  accomplished,  and  what  is 
the  end  of  the  perfect  life. 

Now  the  soul  of  man  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of 
which  has  reason  in  itself,  and  the  other,  not  having  rea¬ 
son  in  itself,  is  able  to  obey  reason.  And  we  call  a  man 
good  because  he  has  the  virtues  of  these  two  parts.  In 
which  of  them  the  end  is  more  likely  to  be  found  is  no 
matter  of  doubt  to  those  who  adopt  our  division ;  for  in 
the  world  both  of  nature  and  of  art  the  inferior  always 
exists  for  the  sake  of  the  better  or  superior,  and  the  better 
or  superior  is  that  which  has  reason.  The  reason  too,  in 
our  ordinary  way  of  speaking,  is  divided  into  two  parts  for 
there  is  a  practical  and  a  speculative  reason,  and  there  must 
be  a  corresponding  division  of  actions ;  the  actions  of  the 
naturally  better  principle  are  to  be  preferred  by  those  who 
have  it  in  their  power  to  attain  to  both  or  to  all,  for  that 
is  always  to  every  one  the  most  eligible  which  is  the  high¬ 
est  attainable  by  him.  The  whole  of  life  is  further  divided 
into  two  parts,  business  and  leisure,  war  and  peace,  and  all 
actions  into  those  which  are  necessary  and  useful,  and 
those  which  are  honourable.  And  the  preference  given 
to  one  or  the  other  class  of  actions  must  necessarily  be  like 
the  preference  given  to  one  or  other  part  of  the  soul  and 
its  actions  over  the  other ;  there  must  be  war  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  business  for  the  sake  of  leisure,  things  useful 
and  necessary  for  the  sake  of  things  honourable.  All 
these  points  the  statesman  should  keep  in  view  when  he 
frames  his  laws ;  he  should  consider  the  parts  of  the  soul 


Two  parts  of 
the  soul; 
the  end  to 
be  sought  in 
reason. 


Two  classes 
of  actions 
and  two  cor¬ 
responding 
kinds  of 
education  : 
a  higher  and 
a  lower. 


276  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Inadequacy 
of  the 
Spartan 
education, 
which 
trained  for 
the  lower. 


The  military 
ideal  is 
inadequate 
and  is  use¬ 
less  in  peace. 


and  their  functions,  and  above  all  the  better  and  the  end ; 
he  should  also  remember  the  diversities  of  human  lives 
and  actions.  For  men  must  engage  in  business  and  go  to 
war,  but  leisure  and  peace  are  better ;  they  must  do  what 
is  necessary  and  useful,  but  what  is  honourable  is  better. 
In  such  principles  children  and  persons  of  every  age  which 
requires  education  should  be  trained.  Whereas  even  the 
Hellenes  of  the  present  day,  who  are  reputed  to  be  best 
governed,  and  the  legislators  who  gave  them  their  consti¬ 
tutions,  do  not  appear  to  have  framed  their  governments 
with  a  regard  to  the  best  end,  or  to  have  given  them  laws 
and  education  with  a  view  to  all  the  virtues,  but  in  a  vul¬ 
gar  spirit  have  fallen  back  on  those  which  promised  to  be 
more  useful  and  profitable.  Many  modern  writers  have 
taken  a  similar  view :  they  commend  the  Lacedaemonian 
constitution,  and  praise  the  legislator  for  making  conquest 
and  war  his  sole  aim,  a  doctrine  which  may  be  refuted  by 
argument  and  has  long  ago  been  refuted  by  facts.  For 
most  men  desire  empire  in  the  hope  of  accumulating  the 
goods  of  fortune ;  and  on  this  ground  Thibron  and  all 
those  who  have  written  about  the  Lacedaemonian  constitu¬ 
tion  have  praised  their  legislator,  because  the  Lacedae¬ 
monians,  by  a  training  in  hardships,  gained  great  power. 
But  surely  they  are  not  a  happy  people  now  that  their 
empire  has  passed  away,  nor  was  their  legislator  right. 
How  ridiculous  is  the  result,  if,  while  they  are  continuing 
in  the  observance  of  his  laws  and  no  one  interferes  with 
them,  they  have  lost  the  better  part  of  life.  These  writers 
further  err  about  the  sort  of  government  which  the  legis¬ 
lator  should  approve,  for  the  government  of  freemen  is 
noble,  and  implies  more  virtue  than  despotic  government. 
Neither  is  a  city  to  be  deemed  happy  or  a  legislator  to  be 
praised  because  he  trains  his  citizens  to  conquer  and 
obtain  dominion  over  their  neighbours,  for  there  is  great 
evil  in  this.  On  a  similar  principle  any  citizen  who  could, 
would  obviously  try  to  obtain  the  power  in  his  own  state, 
—  the  crime  which  the  Lacedaemonians  accuse  king  Pau- 
sanias  of  attempting,  although  he  had  so  great  honour 
already.  No  such  principle  and  no  law  having  this  object 
is  either  statesmanlike  or  useful  or  right.  For  the  same 
things  are  best  both  for  individuals  and  for  states,  and 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View  277 

these  are  the  things  which  the  legislator  ought  to  implant 
in  the  minds  of  his  citizens.  Neither  should  men  study 
war  with  a  view  to  the  enslavement  of  those  who  do  not 
deserve  to  be  enslaved ;  but  first  of  all  they  should  provide 
against  their  own  enslavement,  and  in  the  second  place 
obtain  empire  for  the  good  of  the  governed,  and  not  for  the 
sake  of  exercising  a  general  despotism,  and  in  the  third 
place  they  should  seek  to  be  masters  only  over  those  who 
deserve  to  be  slaves.  Facts,  as  well  as  arguments,  prove 
that  the  legislator  should  direct  all  his  military  and  other 
measures  to  the  provision  of  leisure  and  the  establishment 
of  peace.  For  most  of  these  military  states  are  safe  only 
while  they  are  at  war,  but  fall  when  they  have  acquired 
their  empire ;  like  unused  iron  they  rust  in  time  of  peace. 
And  for  this  the  legislator  is  to  blame,  he  never  having 
taught  them  how  to  lead  the  life  of  peace. 

1 5.  Since  the  end  of  individuals  and  of  states  is  the  same, 
the  end  of  the  best  man  and  of  the  best  state  must  also  be 
the  same ;  it  is  therefore  evident  that  there  ought  to  exist 
in  both  of  them  the  virtues  of  leisure ;  for  peace,  as  has 
often  been  repeated,  is  the  end  of  war,  and  leisure  of  toil. 
But  leisure  and  cultivation  may  be  promoted,  not  only  by 
those  virtues  which  are  practised  in  leisure,  but  also  by 
some  of  those  which  are  useful,  to  business.  For  many 
necessaries  of  life  have  to  be  supplied  before  we  can  have 
leisure.  Therefore  a  city  must  be  temperate  and  brave, 
and  able  to  endure ;  for  truly,  as  the  proverb  says,  ‘  There 
is  no  leisure  for  slaves,’  and  those  who  cannot  face  danger 
like  men  are  the  slaves  of  any  invader.  Courage  and  endur¬ 
ance  are  required  for  business  and  philosophy  for  leisure, 
temperance  and  justice  for  both,  more  especially  in  times 
of  peace  and  leisure,  for  war  compels  men  to  be  just  and 
temperate,  whereas  the  enjoyment  of  good  fortune  and  the 
leisure  which  comes  with  peace  tends  to  make  them  inso¬ 
lent.  Those  then,  who  seem  to  be  the  best-off  and  to  be 
in  the  possession  of  every  good,  have  special  need  of  jus¬ 
tice  and  temperance,  —  for  example,  those  (if  such  there 
be,  as  the  poets  say) who  dwell  in  the  Islands  of  the  Blest; 
they  above  all  will  need  philosophy  and  temperance  and 
justice,  and  all  the  more  the  more  leisure  they  have,  living  in 
the  midst  of  abundance.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  seeing 


War  is  for 
the  sake  of 
peace; 
business  for 
the  sake  of 
leisure. 


The  highest 
goods  not 
the  result  of 
a  single 
virtue, — 
courage. 


The  educa¬ 
tion  of  the 
body  pre¬ 
cedes  that  of 
the  mind; 
and  the  for¬ 
mation  of 
habit 
precedes 
instruction. 


278  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

why  the  state  that  would  be  happy  and  good  ought  to  have 
these  virtues.  If  it  be  disgraceful  in  men  not  to  be  able 
to  use  the  goods  of  life,  it  is  peculiarly  disgraceful  not  to 
be  able  to  use  them  in  time  of  peace,  —  to  show  excellent 
qualities  in  action  and  war,  and  when  they  have  peace  and 
leisure  to  be  no  better  than  slaves.  Wherefore  we  should 
not  practise  virtue  after  the  manner  of  the  Lacedaemonians. 
For  they,  while  agreeing  with  other  men  in  their  concep¬ 
tion  of  the  highest  goods,  differ  from  the  rest  of  mankind 
in  thinking  that  they  are  to  be  obtained  by  the  practice  of 
a  single  virtue.  And  since  these  goods  and  the  enjoyment 
of  them  are  clearly  greater  than  the  enjoyment  derived 
from  the  virtues  of  which  they  are  the  end,  we  must  now 
consider  how  and  by  what  means  they  are  to  be  attained. 

We  have  already  determined  that  nature  and  habit  and 
reason  are  required,  and  what  should  be  the  character  of 
the  citizens  has  also  been  defined  by  us.  But  we  have 
still  to  consider  whether  the  training  of  early  life  is  to  be 
that  of  reason  or  habit,  for  these  two  must  accord,  and 
when  in  accord  they  will  then  form  the  best  of  harmonies. 
Reason  may  make  mistakes  and  fail  in  attaining  the  high¬ 
est  ideal  of  life,  and  there  may  be  a  like  evil  influence  of 
habit.  Thus  much  is  clear  in  the  first  place,  that,  as  in  all 
other  things,  birth  implies  some  antecedent  principle,  and 
that  the  end  of  anything  has  a  beginning  in  some  former 
end.  Now,  in  men  reason  and  mind  are  the  end  towards 
which  nature  strives,  so  that  the  birth  and  moral  discipline 
of  the  citizens  ought  to  be  ordered  with  a  view  to  them. 
In  the  second  place,  as  the  soul  and  body  are  two,  we  see 
also  that  there  are  two  parts  of  the  soul,  the  rational  and 
the  irrational,  and  two  corresponding  states  —  reason  and 
appetite.  And  as  the  body  is  prior  in  order  of  generation 
to  the  soul,  so  the  irrational  is  prior  to  the  rational.  The 
proof  is  that  anger  and  will  and  desire  are  implanted  in 
children  from  their  very  birth,  but  reason  and  understand¬ 
ing  are  developed  as  they  grow  older.  Wherefore,  the 
care  of  the  body  ought  to  precede  that  of  the  soul,  and  the 
training  of  the  appetitive  part  should  follow :  none  the  less 
our  care  of  it  must  be  for  the  sake  of  the  reason,  and  our 
care  of  the  body  for  the  sake  of  the  soul. 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View  279 

17.  After  the  children  have  been  born,  the  manner  of  Young 
rearing  them  may  be  supposed  to  have  a  great  effect  on  children, 
their  bodily  strength.  It  would  appear  from  the  example 
of  animals,  and  of  those  nations  who  desire  to  create  the 
military  habit,  that  the  food  which  has  most  milk  in  it  is  Their  food, 
best  suited  to  human  beings ;  but  the  less  wine  the  better, 
if  they  would  escape  diseases.  Also  all  the  motions  to  exercise, 
which  children  can  be  subjected  at  their  early  age  are  very 
useful.  But  in  order  to  preserve  their  tender  limbs  from 
distortion,  some  nations  have  had  recourse  to  mechanical 
appliances  which  straighten  their  bodies.  To  accustom  chil¬ 
dren  to  the  cold  from  their  earliest  years  is  also  an  excel¬ 
lent  practice,  which  greatly  conduces  to  health,  and  hardens 
them  for  military  service.  Hence  many  barbarians  have 
a  custom  of  plunging  their  children  at  birth  into  a  cold  clothing, 
stream ;  others,  like  the  Celts,  clothe  them  in  a  light  wrap¬ 
per  only.  For  human  nature  should  be  early  habituated 
to  endure  all  which  by  habit  it  can  be  made  to  endure  ; 
but  the  process  must  be  gradual.  And  children,  from 
their  natural  warmth,  may  be  easily  trained  to  bear  cold. 

Such  care  should  attend  them  in  the  first  stage  of  life. 

The  next  period  lasts  to  the  age  of  five ;  during  this  no 
demand  should  be  made  upon  the  child  for  study  or  labour, 
lest  its  growth  be  impeded;  and  there  should  be  sufficient 
motion  to  prevent  the  limbs  from  being  inactive.  This 
can  be  secured,  among  other  ways,  by  amusement,  but  the  amuse- 
amusement  should  not  be  vulgar  or  tiring  or  riotous.  The  merits, 
Directors  of  Education,  as  they  are  termed,  should  be  care¬ 
ful  what  tales  or  stories  the  children  hear,1  for  the  sports  tales  and 
of  children  are  designed  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  busi-  stories- 
ness  of  later  life,  and  should  be  for  the  most  part  imita¬ 
tions  of  the  occupations  which  they  will  hereafter  pursue 
in  earnest.  Those  are  wrong  who  (like  Plato)  in  the  Laws2 
attempt  to  check  the  loud  crying  and  screaming  of  children, 
for  these  contribute  towards  their  growth,  and,  in  a  man¬ 
ner,  exercise  their  bodies.  Straining  the  voice  has  an 
effect  similar  to  that  produced  by  the  retention  of  the 
breath  in  violent  exertions.  Besides  other  duties,  the 

1  Cf.  Plato,  Republic ,  II.  377;  p.  140  of  this  volume. 

2  Cf.  Plato,  Laws,  I.  643;  VII.  799. 


Should  live 
at  home,  but 
not  be  left 
to  slaves. 


Care  for 
their  morals. 


Lasting  in¬ 
fluence  of 
early 

associations. 


280  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Directors  of  Education  should  have  an  eye  to  their  bring¬ 
ing  up,  and  should  take  care  that  they  are  left  as  little  as 
possible  with  slaves.  For  until  they  are  seven  years  old 
they  must  live  at  home ;  and  therefore,  even  at  this  early 
age,  all  that  is  mean  and  low  should  be  banished  from 
their  sight  and  hearing.  Indeed,  there  is  nothing  which 
the  legislator  should  be  more  careful  to  drive  away  than 
indecency  of  speech;  for  the  light  utterance  of  shameful 
words  is  akin  to  shameful  actions.  The  young  especially 
should  never  be  allowed  to  repeat  or  hear  anything  of  the 
sort.  A  freeman  who  is  fond  of  saying  or  doing  what  is 
forbidden,  if  he  be  too  young  as  yet  to  have  the  privilege 
of  a  place  at  the  public  tables,  should  be  disgraced  and 
beaten,  and  an  elder  person  degraded  as  his  slavish  con¬ 
duct  deserves.  And  since  we  do  not  allow  improper  lan¬ 
guage,  clearly  we  should  also  banish  pictures  or  tales  which 
are  indecent.  Let  the  rulers  take  care  that  there  be  no 
image  or  picture  representing  unseemly  actions,  except  in 
the  temples  of  those  Gods  at  whose  festivals  the  law  per¬ 
mits  even  ribaldry,  and  whom  the  law  also  permits  to  be 
worshipped  by  persons  of  mature  age  on  behalf  of  them¬ 
selves,  their  children,  and  their  wives.  But  the  legislator 
should  not  allow  youth  to  be  hearers  of  satirical  Iambic 
verses  or  spectators  of  comedy  until  they  are  of  an  age  to 
sit  at  the  public  tables  and  to  drink  strong  wine ;  by  that 
time  education  will  have  armed  them  against  the  evil  influ¬ 
ences  of  such  representations. 

We  have  made  these  remarks  in  a  cursory  manner, — . 
they  are  enough  for  the  present  occasion ;  but .  hereafter 
we  will  return  to  the  subject  and  after  a  fuller  discussion 
determine  whether  such  liberty  should  or  should  not  be 
granted,  and  in  what  way  granted,  if  at  all.  Theodorus, 
the  tragic  actor,  was  quite  right  in  saying  that  he  would 
not  allow  any  other  actor,  not  even  if  he  were  quite  second- 
rate,  to  enter  before  himself,  because  the  spectators  grew 
fond  of  the  voices  which  they  first  heard.  And  the  same 
principle  of  association  applies  universally  to  things  as  well 
as  persons,  for  we  always  like  best  whatever  comes  first. 
And  therefore  youth  should  be  kept  strangers  to  all  that 
is  bad,  and  especially  to  things  which  suggest  vice  or  hate. 

1  A  promise  unfulfilled,  or  if  fulfilled  the  discussion  is  not  extant. 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View  281 

When  the  five  years  have  passed  away,  during  the  two 
following  years  they  must  look  on  at  the  pursuits  which 
they  are  hereafter  to  learn.  There  are  two  periods  of  life 
into  which  education  has  to  be  divided,  from  seven  to  the 
age  of  puberty,  and  onwards  to  the  age  of  one  and  twenty. 
(The  poets)  who  divide  ages  by  sevens  are  not  always 
right :  we  should  rather  adhere  to  the  divisions  actually 
made  by  nature ;  for  the  deficiencies  of  nature  are  what 
art  and  education  seek  to  fill  up. 

Let  us  then  first  enquire  if  any  regulations  are  to  be  laid 
down  about  children,  and  secondly,  whether  the  care  of 
them  should  be  the  concern  of  the  state  or  the  private 
individuals,  which  latter  is  in  our  own  day  the  common 
custom,  and  in  the  third  place,  what  these  regulations 
should  be. 

BOOK  VIII 

1.  No  one  will  doubt  that  the  legislator  should  direct  his 
attention  above  all  to  the  education  of  youth,  or  that  the 
neglect  of  education  does  harm  to  states.  The  citizen 
should  be  moulded  to  suit  the  form  of  government  under 
which  he  lives.  For  each  government  has  a  peculiar  char¬ 
acter  which  originally  formed  and  which  continues  to 
preserve  it.  The  character  of  democracy  creates  democ¬ 
racy,  and  the  character  of  oligarchy  creates  oligarchy ; 
and  always  the  better  the  character,  the  better  the  govern¬ 
ment. 

Now  for  the  exercise  of  any  faculty  or  art  a  previous 
training  and  habituation  are  required ;  clearly  therefore 
for  the  practice  of  virtue.  And  since  the  whole  city  has 
one  end,  it  is  manifest  that  education  should  be  one  and 
the  same  for  all,  and  that  it  should  be  public,  and  not  pri¬ 
vate,  —  not  as  at  present,  when  every  one  looks  after  his 
own  children  separately,  and  gives  them  separate  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the  sort  which  he  thinks  best ;  the  training  in 
things  which  are  of  common  interest  should  be  the  same 
for  all.  Neither  must  we  suppose  that  any  one  of  the 
citizens  belongs  to  himself,  for  they  all  belong  to  the  state, 
and  are  each  of  them  a  part  of  the  state,  and  the  care  of 
each  part  is  inseparable  from  the  care  of  the  whole.  In 
this  particular  the  Lacedaemonians  are  to  be  praised,  for 


Periods  of 
life. 


Character  of 
education 
determined 
by  character 
of  the  state. 


Education 
should  be 
public  and 
the  same 
for  all,  and 
for  the  good 
of  all. 


Aim  of 
education; 
liberal  or 
practical. 


282  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

they  take  the  greatest  pains  about  their  children,  and 
make  education  the  business  of  the  state. 

2.  That  education  should  be  regulated  by  law  and 
should  be  an  affair  of  state  is  not  to  be  denied,  but  what 
should  be  the  character  of  this  public  education,  and  how 
young  persons  should  be  educated,  are  questions  which 
remain  to  be  considered.  For  mankind  are  by  no  means 
agreed  about  the  things  to  be  taught,  whether  we  look  to 
virtue  or  the  best  life.  Neither  is  it  clear  whether  educa¬ 
tion  is  more  concerned  with  intellectual  or  with  moral 
virtue.  The  existing  practice  is  perplexing;  no  one 
knows  on  what  principle  we  should  proceed  —  should 
the  useful  in  life,  or  should  virtue,  or  should  the  higher 
knowledge,  be  the  aim  of  our  training ;  all  three  opinions 
have  been  entertained.  Again,  about  the  means  there  is 
no  agreement;  for  different  persons,  starting  with  differ¬ 
ent  ideas  about  the  nature  of  virtue,  naturally  disagree 
about  the  practice  of  it.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
children  should  be  taught  those  useful  things  which  are 
really  necessary,  but  not  all  things;  for  occupations  are 
divided  into  liberal  and  illiberal;  and  to  young  children 
should  be  imparted  only  such  kinds  of  knowledge  as  will 
be  useful  to  them  without  vulgarizing  them.  And  any 
occupation,  art,  or  science,  which  makes  the  body  or  soul 
or  mind  of  the  freeman  less  fit  for  the  practice  or  exercise 
of  virtue,  is  vulgar ;  wherefore  we  call  those  arts  vulgar 
which  tend  to  deform  the  body,  and  likewise  all  paid 
employments,  for  they  absorb  and  degrade  the  mind. 
There  are  also  some  liberal  arts  quite  proper  for  a  free¬ 
man  to  acquire,  but  only  in  a  certain  degree,  and  if  he 
attend  to  them  too  closely,  in  order  to  attain  perfection  in 
them,  the  same  evil  effects  will  follow.  The  object  also 
which  a  man  sets  before  him  makes  a  great  difference ; 
if  he  does  or  learns  anything  for  his  own  sake  or  for  the 
sake  of  his  friends,  or  with  a  view  to  excellence,  the  action 
will  not  appear  illiberal ;  but  if  done  for  the  sake  of  others, 
the  very  same  action  will  be  thought  menial  and  servile. 
The  received  subjects  of  instruction,  as  I  have  already 
remarked,  are  partly  of  a  liberal  and  partly  of  an  illiberal 
character. 

3.  The  customary  branches  of  education  are  in  number 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View  283 

four;  they  are  —  (1)  reading  and  writing,  (2)  gymnastic 
exercises,  (3)  music,  to  which  is  sometimes  added  (4)  draw¬ 
ing.  Of  these,  reading  and  writing  and  drawing  are 
regarded  as  useful  for  the  purposes  of  life  in  a  variety 
of  ways,  and  gymnastic  exercises  are  thought  to  infuse 
courage.  Concerning  music  a  doubt  may  be  raised  —  in 
our  own  day  most  men  cultivate  it  for  the  sake  of  pleas¬ 
ure,  but  originally  it  was  included  in  education,  because 
nature  herself,  as  has  often  been  said,  requires  that  we 
should  be  able,  not  only  to  work  well,  but  to  use  leisure 
well ;  for,  as  I  must  repeat  once  and  again,  the  first  prin¬ 
ciple  of  all  action  is  leisure.  Both  are  required,  but  leisure 
is  better  than  occupation  ;  and  therefore  the  question  must 
be  asked  in  good  earnest,  what  ought  we  to  do  when  at 
leisure  ?  Clearly  we  ought  not  to  be  amusing  ourselves, 
for  then  amusement  would  be  the  end  of  life.  But  if  this 
is  inconceivable,  and  yet  amid  serious  occupations  amuse¬ 
ment  is  needed  more  than  at  other  times  (for  he  who  is 
hard  at  work  has  need  of  relaxation,  and  amusement  gives 
relaxation,  whereas  occupation  is  always  accompanied  with 
exertion  and  effort),  at  suitable  times  we  should  introduce 
amusements,  and  they  should  be  our  medicines,  for  the 
emotion  which  they  create  in  the  soul  is  a  relaxation,  and 
from  the  pleasure  we  obtain  rest.  Leisure  of  itself  gives 
pleasure  and  happiness  and  enjoyment  of  life,  which  are 
experienced,  not  by  the  busy  man,  but  by  those  who  have 
leisure.  For  he  who  is  occupied  has  in  view  some  end 
which  he  has  not  attained  ;  but  happiness  is  an  end  which 
all  men  deem  to  be  accompanied  with  pleasure  and  not 
with  pain.  This  pleasure,  however,  is  regarded  differently 
by  different  persons,  and  varies  according  to  the  habit  of 
individuals ;  the  pleasure  of  the  best  man  is  the  best,  and 
springs  from  the  noblest  sources.  It  is  clear  then  that 
there  are  branches  of  learning  and  education  which  we 
must  study  with  a  view  to  the  enjoyment  of  leisure,  and 
these  are  to  be  valued  for  their  own  sake ;  whereas  those 
kinds  of  knowledge  which  are  useful  in  business  are  to  be 
deemed  necessary,  and  exist  for  the  sake  of  other  things. 
And  therefore  our  fathers  admitted  music  into  education, 
not  on  the  ground  either  of  its  necessity  or  utility,  for  it 
is  not  necessary,  nor  indeed  useful  in  the  same  manner  as 


Subject- 
matter  of 
education. 


Purpose  of 
music. 


Reading, 
writing,  and 
drawing 
have  a 
liberal 
purpose. 


284  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

reading  and  writing,  which  are  useful  in  money-making, 
in  the  management  of  a  household,  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  and  in  political  life,  nor  like  drawing,  useful 
for  a  more  correct  judgment  of  the  works  of  artists,  nor 
again  like  gymnastic,  which  gives  health  and  strength ; 
for  neither  of  these  is  to  be  gained  from  music. .  There 
remains,  then,  the  use  of  music  for  intellectual  enjoyment 
in  leisure ;  which  appears  to  have  been  the  reason  of  its 
introduction,  this  being  one  of  the  ways  in  which  it  is 
thought  that  a  freeman  should  pass  his  leisure ;  as  Homer 

says  — 

<  How  good  it  is  to  invite  men  to  the  pleasant  feast,1 

and  afterwards  he  speaks  of  others  whom  he  describes  as 
inviting 

‘The  bard  who  would  delight  them  all.’1 

And  in  another  place  Odysseus  says  there  is  no  better  way 
of  passing  life  than  when 

‘  Men’s  hearts  are  merry  and  the  banqueters  in  the  hall,  sitting  in 
order,  hear  the  voice  of  the  minstrel.1  2 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  there  is  a  sort  of  education  in 
which  parents  should  train  their  sons,  not  as  being  useful 
or  necessary,  but  because  it  is  liberal  or  noble.  Whether 
this  is  of  one  kind  only,  or  of  more  than  one,  and  if  so, 
what  they  are,  and  how  they  are  to  be  imparted,  must  here¬ 
after  be  determined.  Thus  much  we  are  now  in  a  position 
to  say  that  the  ancients  witness  to  us;  for  their  opinion 
may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  music  is  one  of  the  re¬ 
ceived  and  traditional  branches  of  education.  Further,  it 
is  clear  that  children  should  be  instructed  in  some  useful 
things,  —  for  example,  in  reading  and  writing,  —  not  only 
for  their  usefulness,  but  also  because  many  other  sorts  of 
knowledge  are  acquired  through  them.  With  a  like  view 
they  may  be  taught  drawing,  not  to  prevent  their  making 
mistakes  in  their  own  purchases,  or  in  order  that  they  may 
not  be  imposed  upon  in  the  buying  or  selling  of  articles,  but 
rather  because  it  makes  them  judges  of  the  beauty  of  the 
human  form.  To  be  always  seeking  after  the  useful  does 

1  Odyssey,  XVII.  385.  2  Odyssey y  IX.  7. 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View  285 

not  become  free  and  exalted  souls.  Now  it  is  clear  that  in 
education  habit  must  go  before  reason,  and  the  body  before 
the  mind ;  and  therefore  boys  should  be  handed  over  to 
the  trainer,  who  creates  in  them  the  proper  habit  of  body, 
and  to  the  wrestling-master,  who  teaches  them  their  exer¬ 
cises. 

4.  Of  those  states  which  in  our  own  day  seem  to  take 
the  greatest  care  of  children,  some  aim  at  producing  in 
them  an  athletic  habit,  but  they  only  injure  their  forms  and 
stunt  their  growth.  Although  the  Lacedaemonians  have 
not  fallen  into  this  mistake,  yet  they  brutalize  their  chil¬ 
dren  by  laborious  exercises  which  they  think  will  make 
them  courageous.  But  in  truth,  as  we  have  often  repeated, 
education  should  not  be  exclusively  directed  to  this  or  to 
any  other  single  end.  And  even  if  we  suppose  the  Lacedae¬ 
monians  to  be  right  in  their  end,  they  do  not  attain  it. 
For  among  barbarians  and  among  animals  courage  is  found 
associated,  not  with  the  greatest  ferocity,  but  with  a  gentle 
and  lion-like  temper.  There  are  many  races  who  are  ready 
enough  to  kill  and  eat  men,  such  as  the  Achaeans  and 
Heniochi,  who  both  live  about  the  Black  Sea ;  and  there 
are  other  inland  tribes,  as  bad  or  worse,  who  all  live  by 
plunder,  but  have  no  courage.  It  is  notorious  that  the 
Lacedaemonians,  while  they  were  themselves  assiduous  in 
their  laborious  drill,  were  superior  to  others,  but  now  they 
are  beaten  both  in  war  and  gymnastic  exercises.  For 
their  ancient  superiority  did  not  depend  on  their  mode  of 
training  their  youth,  but  only  on  the  circumstance  that 
they  trained  them  at  a  time  when  others  did  not.  Hence 
we  may  infer  that  what  is  noble,  not  what  is  brutal,  should 
have  the  first  place ;  no  wolf  or  other  wild  animal  will  face 
a  really  noble  danger  ;  such  dangers  are  for  the  brave  man. 
And  parents  who  devote  their  children  to  gymnastics 
while  they  neglect  their  necessary  education,  in  reality  vul¬ 
garize  them  ;  for  they  make  them  useful  to  the  state  in  one 
quality  only,  and  even  in  this  the  argument  proves  them  to 
be  inferior  to  others.  We  should  judge  the  Lacedaemo¬ 
nians  not  from  what  they  have  been  but  from  what  they 
are  ;  for  now  they  have  rivals  who  compete  with  their  edu¬ 
cation  ;  formerly  they  had  none. 

It  is  an  admitted  principle,  that  gymnastic  exercises 


Gymnastic. 


Athletic 

training 

injurious. 


Roughness 
or  ferocity  is 
not  courage. 


The  young 
should  not 
be  over¬ 
taxed. 


Why  music 
should  be 
studied :  as 
an  amuse¬ 
ment; 
because  it 
affects 
character; 
because  it 
contributes 
to  the  en¬ 
joyment  of 
leisure. 


Need  we 
play  and 
sing 

ourselves? 


286  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

should  be  employed  in  education,  and  that  for  children 
they  should  be  of  a  lighter  kind,  avoiding  severe  regimen 
or  painful  toil,  lest  the  growth  of  the  body  be  impaired. 
The  evil  of  excessive  training  in  early  years  is  strikingly 
proved  by  the  example  of  the  Olympic  victors ;  for  not 
more  than  two  or  three  of  them  have  gained  a  prize  both 
as  boys  and  as  men ;  their  early  training  and  severe  gym¬ 
nastic  exercises  exhausted  their  constitutions.  When  boy¬ 
hood  is  over,  three  years  should  be  spent  in  other  studies ; 
the  period  of  life  which  follows  may  then  be  devoted  to 
hard  exercise  and  strict  regimen.  Men  ought  not  to  labour 
at  the  same  time  with  their  minds  and  with  their  bodies , 1 
for  the  two  kinds  of  labour  are  opposed  to  one  another, 
the  labour  of  the  body  impedes  the  mind,  and  the  labour  of 
the  mind  the  body. 

5.  Concerning  music  there  are  some  questions  which  we 
have  already  raised ;  these  we  may  now  resume  and  carry 
further ;  and  our  remarks  will  serve  as  a  prelude  to  this  or 
any  other  discussion  of  the  subject.  It  is  not  easy  to 
determine  the  nature  of  music,  or  why  any  one  should  have 
a  knowledge  of  it.  Shall  we  say,  for  the  sake  of  amuse¬ 
ment  and  relaxation,  like  sleep  or  drinking,  which  are  not 
good  in  themselves,  but  are  pleasant,  and  at  the  same  time 
‘  make  care  to  cease ;  ’  as  Euripides2  says  ?  And  therefore 
men  rank  them  with  music,  and  make  use  of  all  three,  — 
sleep,  drinking,  music, — to  which  some  add  dancing. 
Or  shall  we  argue  that  music  conduces  to  virtue,  on  the 
ground  that  it  can  form  our  minds  and  habituate  us  to  true 
pleasures  as  our  bodies  are  made  by  gymnastic  to  be  of  a 
certain  character  ?  Or  shall  we  say  that  it  contributes  to 
the  enjoyment  of  leisure  and  mental  cultivation,  which  is  a 
third  alternative  ?  Now  obviously  youth  are  not  to  be  in¬ 
structed  with  a  view  to  their  amusement,  for  learning  is  no 
pleasure,  but  is  accompanied  with  pain.  Neither  is  intel¬ 
lectual  enjoyment  suitable  to  boys  of  that  age,  for  it  is  the 
end,  and  that  which  is  imperfect  cannot  attain  the  perfect 
or  end.  But  perhaps  it  may  be  said  that  boys  learn  music 
for  the  sake  of  the  amusement  which  they  will  have  when 


1  Cf.  Plato,  Republic ,  VII.  537;  p.  217  of  this  volume. 

2  Bacchae,  380. 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View  287 

they  are  grown  up.  If  so,  why  should  they  learn  them¬ 
selves,  and  not,  like  the  Persian  and  Median  kings,  enjoy 
the  pleasure  and  instruction  which  is  derived  from  hearing 
others  ?.  (for  surely  skilled  persons  who  have  made  music 
the  business  and  profession  of  their  lives  will  be  better  per¬ 
formers  than  those  who  practise  only  to  learn).  If  they 
must  learn  music,  on  the  same  principle  they  should  learn 
cookery,  which  is  absurd.  And  even  granting  that  music 
may  form  the  character,  the  objection  still  holds  :  why 
should  we  learn  ourselves  ?  Why  cannot  we  attain  true 
pleasure  and  form  a  correct  judgment  from  hearing  others, 
like .  the  Lacedaemonians  ?  —  for  they,  without  learning 
music,  nevertheless  can  correctly  judge,  as  they  say,  of 
good  and  bad  melodies.  Or  again,  if  music  should  be  used 
to  promote  cheerfulness  and  refined  intellectual  enjoyment, 
the  objection  still  remains — why  should  we  learn  our¬ 
selves  instead  of  enjoying  the  performance  of  others?  We 
may  illustrate  what  we  are  saying  by  our  conception  of  the 
Gods ;  for  in  the  poets  Zeus  does  not  himself  sing  or  play 
on  the  lyre.  Nay,  we  call  professional  performers  vulgar ; 
no  freeman  would  play  or  sing  unless  he  were  intoxicated 
or  in  jest.  But  these  matters  may  be  left  for  the  present. 

The  first  question  is  whether  rpusic  is  or  is  not  to  be  a 
part  of  education.  Of  the  three  things  mentioned  in  our 
discussion,  which  is  it  ? —  Education  or  amusement  or  intel¬ 
lectual  enjoyment,  for  it  may  be  reckoned  under  all  three, 
and  seems  to  share  in  the  nature  of  all  of  them.  Amuse¬ 
ment  is  for  the  sake  of  relaxation,  and  relaxation  is  of 
necessity  sweet,  for  it  is  the  remedy  of  pain  caused  by 
toil,  and  intellectual  enjoyment  is  universally  acknowledged 
to  contain  an  element  not  only  of  the  noble  but  of  the 
pleasant,  for  happiness  is  made  up  of  both.  All  men 
agree  that  music  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  things,  whether 
with  or  without  song ;  as  Musaeus  says, 

‘  Song  is  to  mortals  of  all  things  the  sweetest.’ 

Hence,  and  with  good  reason  it  is  introduced  into  social 
gatherings  and  entertainments,  because  it  makes  the  hearts 
of  men  glad :  so  that  on  this  ground  alone  we  may  assume 
that  the  young  ought  to  be  trained  in  it.  For  innocent 
pleasures  are  not  only  in  harmony  with  the  perfect  end  of 


Music  may 
be  con¬ 
sidered, 

(0  an 

amusement, 


(2)  as 
having  an 
ethical 
influence. 


288  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

life,  but  they  also  provide  relaxation.  And  whereas  men 
rarely  attain  the  end,  but  often  rest  by  the  way  and  amuse 
themselves,  not  only  with  a  view  to  some  good,  but  also 
for  the  pleasure’s  sake,  it  may  be  well  for  them  at  times 
to  find  a  refreshment  in  music.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  men  make  amusement  the  end,  for  the  end  probably 
contains  some  element  of  pleasure,  though  not  any  ordi¬ 
nary  or  lower  pleasure;  but  they  mistake  the  lower  for 
the  higher,  and  in  seeking  for  the  one  find  the  other,  since 
every  pleasure  has  a  likeness  to  the  end  of  action.  For 
the  end  is  not  eligible,  nor  do  the  pleasures  which  we 
have  described  exist,  for  the  sake  of  any  future  good  but 
of  the  past,  that  is  to  say,  they  are  the  alleviation  of  past 
toils  and  pains.  And  we  may  infer  this  to  be  the  reason 
why  men  seek  happiness  from  common  pleasures.  But 
music  is  pursued,  not  only  as  an  alleviation  of  past  toil,  but 
also  as  providing  recreation.  And  who  can  say  whether, 
having  this  use,  it  may  not  also  have  a  nobler  one  ?  In 
addition  to  this  common  pleasure,  felt  and  shared  in  by 
all  (for  the  pleasure  given  by  music  is  natural,  and  there¬ 
fore  adapted  to  all  ages  and  characters),  may  it  not  have 
also  some  influence  over  the  character  and  the  soul  ?  It 
must  have  such  an  influence  if  characters  are  affected 
by  it.  And  that  they  are  so  affected  is  proved  by  the 
power  which  the  songs  of  Olympus  and  of  many  others 
exercise;  for  beyond  question  they  inspire  enthusiasm, 
and  enthusiasm  is  an  emotion  of  the  ethical  part  of 
the  soul.  Besides,  when  men  hear  imitations,  even  unac¬ 
companied  by  melody  or  rhythm,  their  feelings  move  in 
sympathy.  Since  then  music  is  a  pleasure,  and  virtue  con¬ 
sists  in  rejoicing  and  loving  and  hating  aright,  there  is 
clearly  nothing  which  we  are  so  much  concerned  to  acquire 
and  to  cultivate  as  the  power  of  forming  right  judgments, 
and  of  taking  delight  in  good  dispositions  and  noble 
actions.1  Rhythm  and  melody  supply  imitations  of  anger 
and  gentleness,  and  also  of  courage  and  temperance  and 
of  virtues  and  vices  in  general,  which  hardly  fall  short  of 
the  actual  affections,  as  we  know  from  our  own  experience, 


1  Cf.  Plato,  Republic ,  III.  401-402;  p.  161  of  this  volume,  and  Plato,  Laws% 
II.  658-659;  pp.  227-228  of  this  volume. 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View  289 

for  in  listening  to  such  strains  our  souls  undergo  a  change. 

The  habit  of  feeling  pleasure  or  pain  at  mere  representa¬ 
tions  is  not  far  removed  from  the  same  feeling  about 
realities;1  for  example,  if  any  one  delights  in  the  sight  of 
a  statue  for  its  beauty  only,  it  necessarily  follows  that  the 
sight  of  the  original  will  be  pleasant  to  him.  No  other  More  than 
sense,  such  as  taste  or  touch,  has  any  resemblance  to  moral  painting  and 
qualities ;  in  sight  only  there  is  a  little,  for  figures  are  to  statuary- 
some  extent  of  a  moral  character,  and  (so  far)  all  participate 
in  the  feeling  about  them.  Again,  figures  and  colours  are 
not  imitations,  but  signs  of  moral  habits,  indications  which 
the  body  gives  of  states  of  feeling.  The  connection  of 
them  with  morals  is  slight,  but  in  so  far  as  there  is  any, 
young  men  should  be  taught  to  look,  not  at  the  works  of 
Pauson,  but  at  those  of  Polygnotus,  or  any  other  painter  Various 
or  statuary  who  expresses  moral  ideas.  On  the  other  melodies 
hand,  even  in  mere  melodies  there  is  an  imitation  of  char-  Jave^arious 
acter,  for  the  musical  modes  differ  essentially  from  one  ethical 
another,  and  those  who  hear  them  are  differently  affected  effects, 
by  each.  Some  of  them  make  men  sad  and  grave,  like 
the  so-called  Mixolydian,  others  enfeeble  the  mind,  like 
the  relaxed  harmonies,  others,  again,  produce  a  moderate 
and  settled  temper,  which  appears  to  be  the  peculiar 
effect  of  the  Dorian ;  the  Phrygian  inspires  enthusiasm. 

The  whole  subject  has  been  well  treated  by  philosophical 
writers  on  this  branch  of  education,  and  they  confirm 
their  arguments  by  facts.  The  same  principles  apply  to 
rhythms  :  some  have  a  character  of  rest,  others  of  motion, 
and  of  these  latter  again,  some  have  a  more  vulgar,  others 
a  nobler  movement.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that 
music  has  a  power  of  forming  the  character,  and  should 
therefore  be  introduced  into  the  education  of  the  young. 

The  study  is  suited  to  the  stage  of  youth,  for  young  per¬ 
sons  will  not,  if  they  can  help,  endure  anything  which  is 
not  sweetened  by  pleasure,  and  music  has  a  natural  sweet¬ 
ness.  There  seems  to  be  in  us  a  sort  of  affinity  to  harmo¬ 
nies  and  rhythms,  which  makes  some  philosophers  say  that 
the  soul  is  a  harmony,  others,  that  she  possesses  harmony. 

6.  And  now  we  have  to  determine  the  question  which 

1  Cf.  Plato,  Republic ,  III.  395;  pp.  155-156  of  this  volume, 
u 


290  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Children 
should  be 
taught  to 
sing  and 
play. 


They  must 
not  become 
profes¬ 
sionals. 


has  been  already  raised,  whether  children  should  be  them¬ 
selves  taught  to  sing  and  play  or  not.  Clearly  there  is  a 
considerable  difference  made  in  the  character  by  the  actual 
practice  of  the  art.  It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for 
those  who  do  not  perform  to  be  good  judges  of  the  per¬ 
formance  of  others.  Besides,  children  should  have  some¬ 
thing  to  do,  and  the  rattle  of  Archytas,  which  people  give 
to  their  children  in  order  to  amuse  them  and  prevent 
them  from  breaking  anything  in  the  house,  was  a  capital 
invention,  for  a  young  thing  cannot  be  quiet.  The  rattle 
is  a  toy  suited  to  the  infant  mind  and  (musical)  education 
is  a  rattle  or  toy  for  children  of  a  larger  growth.  We 
conclude  then  that  they  should  be  taught  music  in  such  a 
way  as  to  become  not  only  critics  but  performers. 

The  question  what  is  or  is  not  suitable  for  different  ages 
may  be  easily  answered ;  nor  is  there  any  difficulty  in 
meeting  the  objection  of  those  who  say  that  the  study  of 
music  is  vulgar.  We  reply  (1)  in  the  first  place,  that  they 
who  are  to  be  judges  must  also  be  performers,  and  that  they 
should  begin  to  practise  early,  although  when  they  are 
older  they  may  be  spared  the  execution ;  they  must  have 
learned  to  appreciate  what  is  good  and  to  delight  in  it, 
thanks  to  the  knowledge  which  they  acquired  in  their 
youth.  As  to  (2)  the  vulgarizing  effect  which  music  is 
supposed  to  exercise,  this  is  a  question  (of  degree),  which 
we  shall  have  no  difficulty  in  determining,  when  we  have 
considered  to  what  extent  freemen  who  are  being  trained 
to  political  virtue  should  pursue  the  art,  what  melodies  and 
what  rhythms  they  should  be  allowed  to  use,  and  what 
instruments  should  be  employed  in  teaching  them  to  play, 
for  even  the  instrument  makes  a  difference.  The  answer 
to  the  objection  turns  upon  these  distinctions ;  for  it  is 
quite  possible  that  certain  methods  of  teaching  and  learn¬ 
ing  music  do  really  have  a  degrading  effect.  It  is  evident 
then  that  the  learning  of  music  ought  not  to  impede  the 
business  of  riper  years,  or  to  degrade  the  body  or  render 
it  unfit  for  civil  or  military  duties,  whether  for  the  early 
practice  or  for  the  later  study  of  them. 

The  right  measure  will  be  attained  if  students  of  music 
stop  short  of  the  arts  which  are  practised  in  professional 
contests,  and  do  not  seek  to  acquire  those  fantastic  marvels 


Theory  of  Education:  Scientific  View  291 

of  execution  which  are  now  the  fashion  in  such  contests,  and 
from  these  have  passed  into  education.  Let  the  young  pur¬ 
sue  their  studies  until  they  are  able  to  feel  delight  in  noble 
melodies  and  rhythms,  and  not  merely  in  that  common 
part  of  music  in  which  every  slave  or  child  and  even  some 
animals  find  pleasure. 

From  these  principles  we  may  also  infer  what  instru-  what 
ments  should  be  used.  The  flute,  or  any  other  instrument  instruments 
which  requires  great  skill,  as  for  example  the  harp,  ought  be 
not  to  be  admitted  into  education,  but  only  such  as  will 
make  intelligent  students  of  music  or  of  the  other  parts  of 
education.  Besides,  the  flute  is  not  an  instrument  which  Not  the  flute, 
has  a  good  moral  effect ;  it  is  too  exciting.  The  proper 
time  for  using  it  is  when  the  performance  aims  not  at 
instruction,  but  at  the  relief  of  the  passions.  And  there  is 
a  further  objection ;  the  impediment  which  the  flute  pre¬ 
sents  to  the  use  of  the  voice  detracts  from  its  educational 
value.  The  ancients  therefore  were  right  in  forbidding 
the  flute  to  youths  and  freemen,  although  they  had  once 
allowed  it.  For  when  their  wealth  gave  them  greater 
leisure,  and  they  had  loftier  notions  of  excellence,  being 
also  elated  with  their  success,  both  before  and  after  the 
Persian  War,  with  more  zeal  than  discernment  they  pur¬ 
sued  every  kind  of  knowledge,  and  so  they  introduced  the 
flute  into  education.  At  Lacedaemon  there  was  a 
Choragus  who  led  the  Chorus  with  a  flute,  and  at  Athens 
the  instrument  became  so  popular  that  most  freemen  could 
play  upon  it.  The  popularity  is  shown  by  the  tablet  which 
Thrasippus  dedicated  when  he  furnished  the  Chorus  to 
Ecphantides.  Later  experience  enabled  men  to  judge 
what  was  or  was  not  really  conducive  to  virtue,  and  they 
rejected  both  the  flute  and  several  other  old-fashioned 
instruments,  such  as  the  Lydian  harp,  the  many-stringed 
lyre,  the  ‘heptagon,’  ‘triangle,’  ‘sambuca,’ and  the  like  — 
which  are  intended  only  to  give  pleasure  to  the  hearer,  and 
require  extraordinary  skill  of  hand.1  There  is  a  meaning 
also  in  the  myth  of  the  ancients,  which  tells  how  Athene 
invented  the  flute  and  then  threw  it  away.  It  was  not  a 
bad  idea  of  theirs,  that  the  Goddess  disliked  the  instrument 
because  it  made  the  face  ugly ;  but  with  still  more  reason 

1  Cf.  Plato,  Republic ,  III.  399;  p.  160  of  this  volume. 


292  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Profes¬ 

sionalism 

vulgarizes 

music. 


Melodies 

and 

rhythms. 


Classifica¬ 
tion  of 
melodies. 


may  we  say  that  she  rejected  it  because  the  acquirement  of 
flute-playing  contributes  nothing  to  the  mind,  since  to 
Athene  we  ascribe  both  knowledge  and  art 

Thus  then  we  reject  the  professional  instruments  and 
also  the  professional  mode  of  education  in  music  —  and  by 
professional  we  mean  that  which  is  adopted  in  contests, 
for  in  this  the  performer  practises  the  art,  not  for  the 
sake  of  his  own  improvement,  but  in  order  to  give  pleasure, 
and  that  of  a  vulgar  sort,  to  his  hearers.  For  this  reason 
the  execution  of  such  music  is  not  the  part  of  a  freeman 
but  of  a  paid  performer,  and  the  result  is  that  the  per¬ 
formers  are  vulgarized,  for  the  end  at  which  they  aim  is 
bad.  The  vulgarity  of  the  spectator  tends  to  lower  the 
character  of  the  music  and  therefore  of  the  performers  ; 
they  look  to  him  —  he  makes  them  what  they  are,  and 
fashions  even  their  bodies  by  the  movements  which  he 
expects  them  to  exhibit. 

7.  We  have  also  to  consider  rhythms  and  harmonies. 
Shall  we  use  them  all  in  education  or  make  a  distinction  ? 
and  shall  the  distinction  be  that  which  is  made  by  those  who 
are  engaged  in  education,  or  shall  it  be  some  other?  For 
we  see  that  music  is  produced  by  melody  and  rhythm,  and 
we  ought  to  know  what  influence  these  have  respectively 
on  education,  and  whether  we  should  prefer  excellence  in 
melody  or  excellence  in  rhythm.  But  as  the  subject  has 
been  very  well  treated  by  many  musicians  of  the  present 
day,  and  also  by  philosophers  who  have  had  considerable 
experience  of  musical  education,  to  these  we  would  refer 
the  more  exact  student  of  the  subject;  we  shall  only  speak 
of  it  now  after  the  matter  of  the  legislator,  having  regard 
to  general  principles. 

We  accept  the  division  of  melodies  proposed  by  certain 
philosophers  into  ethical  melodies,  melodies  of  action,  and 
passionate  or  inspiring  melodies,  each  having,  as  they  say, 
a  mode  or  harmony  corresponding  to  it.  But  we  maintain 
further  that  music  should  be  studied,  not  for  the  sake  of 
one,  but  of  many  benefits,  that  is  to  say,  with  a  view  to 
(1)  education,  (2)  purification  (the  word  ‘purification’  we 
use  at  present  without  explanation,  but  when  hereafter  we 
speak  of  poetry,  we  will  treat  the  subject  with  more  preci¬ 
sion);  music  may  also  serve  (3)  for  intellectual  enjoyment, 


Theory  of  Education :  Scientific  View  293 

for  relaxation  and  for  recreation  after  exertion.  It  is  clear, 
therefore,  that  all  the  harmonies  must  be  employed  by  us, 
but  not  all  of  them  in  the  same  manner.  In  education 
ethical  melodies  are  to  be  preferred,  but  we  may  listen  to 
the  melodies  of  action  and  passion  when  they  are  performed 
by  others.  For  feelings  such  as  pity  and  fear,  or,  again, 
enthusiasm,  exist  very  strongly  in  some  souls,  and  have 
more  or  less  influence  over  all.  Some  persons  fall  into  a 
religious  frenzy,  whom  we  see  disenthralled  by  the  use  of 
mystic  melodies,  which  bring  healing  and  purification  to 
the  soul.  Those  who  are  influenced  by  pity  or  fear  and 
every  emotional  nature  have  a  like  experience,  others 
in  their  degree  are  stirred  by  something  which  specially 
affects  them,  and  all  are  in  a  manner  purified  and  their 
souls  lightened  and  delighted.  The  melodies  of  purifica¬ 
tion  likewise  give  an  innocent  pleasure  to  mankind.  Such 
are  the  harmonies  and  the  melodies  in  which  those  who 
perform  music  at  the  theatre  should  be  invited  to  compete. 
But  since  the  spectators  are  of  two  kinds  —  the  one  free  and 
educated,  the  other  a  vulgar  crowd  composed  of  mechanics, 
labourers,  and  the  like — there  ought  to  be  contests  and  exhi¬ 
bitions  instituted  for  the  relaxation  of  the  second  class  also. 
And  the  melodies  will  correspond  to  their  minds;  for  as  their 
minds  are  perverted  from  the  natural  state,  so  there  are  exag¬ 
gerated  and  corrupted  harmonies  which  are  in  like  manner  a 
perversion.  A  man  receives  pleasure  from  what  is  natural 
to  him,  and  therefore  professional  musicians  may  be  allowed 
to  practise  this  lower  sort  of  music  before  an  audience  of 
a  lower  type.  But,  for  the  purposes  of  education,  as  I 
have  already  said,  those  modes  and  melodies  should  be 
employed  which  are  ethical,  such  as  the  Dorian  ;  though 
we  may  include  any  others  which  are  approved  by  philoso¬ 
phers  who  have  had  a  musical  education.  The  Socrates 
of  the  Republic1  is  wrong  in  retaining  only  the  Phrygian 
mode  along  with  the  Dorian,  and  the  more  so  because  he 
rejects  the  flute;  for  the  Phrygian  is  to  the  modes  what 
the  flute  is  to  musical  instruments  —  both  of  them  are 
exciting  and  emotional.  Poetry  proves  this,  for  Bacchic 
frenzy  and  all  similar  emotions  are  most  suitably  expressed 
by  the  flute,  and  are  better  set  to  the  Phrygian  than  to  any 

1  Cf.  Plato,  Republic ,  III.  399;  p.  160  of  this  volume. 


Ethical 
melodies  to 
be  preferred 
in  education. 


Music  for  the 
multitude. 


The  Dorian 
mode  is 
ethical  and 
educational. 


Principles 
controlling 
the  use  of 
music  in 
education. 


294  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

other  harmony.  The  dithyramb,  for  example,  is  acknowl¬ 
edged  to  be  Phrygian,  a  fact  of  which  the  connoisseurs  of 
music  offer  many  proofs,  saying,  among  other  things,  that 
Philoxenus,  having  attempted  to  compose  his  Tales  as  a 
dithyramb  in  the  Dorian  mode,  found  it  impossible,  and 
fell  back  into  the  more  appropriate  Phrygian.  All  men 
agree  that  the  Dorian  music  is  the  gravest  and  manliest. 
And  whereas  we  say  that  the  extremes  should  be  avoided 
and  the  mean  followed,  and  whereas  the  Dorian  is  a  mean 
between  the  other  harmonies  (the  Phrygian  and  the 
Lydian),  it  is  evident  that  our  youth  should  be  taught  the 
Dorian  music. 

Two  principles  have  to  be  kept  in  view,  what  is  possible, 
what  is  becoming :  at  these  every  man  ought  to  aim.  But 
even  these  are  relative  to  age ;  the  old,  who  have  lost  their 
powers,  cannot  very  well  sing  the  severe  melodies,  and 
nature  herself  seems  to  suggest  that  their  songs  should  be 
of  the  more  relaxed  kind.  Wherefore  the  musicians  like¬ 
wise  blame  Socrates,  and  with  justice,  for  rejecting  the 
relaxed  harmonies  in  education  under  the  idea  that  they 
are  intoxicating,  not  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  intoxication 
(for  wine  rather  tends  to  excite  men),  but  because  they 
have  no  strength  in  them.  And  so  with  a  view  to  a  time 
of  life  when  men  begin  to  grow  old,  they  ought  to  practise 
the  gentler  harmonies  and  melodies  as  well  as  the  others. 
And  if  there  be  any  harmony,  such  as  the  Lydian  above 
all  others  appears  to  be,  which  is  suited  to  children  of 
tender  age,  and  possesses  the  elements  both  of  order  and 
of  education,  clearly  (we  ought  to  use  it,  for)  education 
should  be  based  upon  three  principles  —  the  mean,  the 
possible,  the  becoming,  these  three.1 


1  This  last  selection  is  the  eighth  Book  complete.  Its  abrupt  termination  is 
further  evidence  that  the  treatise  on  education  is  fragmentary  and  incomplete. 


VII.  THE  LATER  COSMOPOLITAN  GREEK 

EDUCATION 


The  Period.  —  The  decline  of  the  national  systems  of 
education  in  Greece  was  consummated  with  the  loss  of 
political  ambition  and  independent  existence  at  the  battle 
of  Chaeronea,  338  b.c.  Even  before  this  time  Greek  sys¬ 
tems  had  lost  much  of  their  peculiar  force.  The  decay 
and  the  attempted  revivification  of  the  Spartan  system  in 
the  third  century  have  been  mentioned.  The  new  educa¬ 
tion  at  Athens  had  introduced  much  greater  freedom  in 
Athenian  practice,  so  that  the  education  there  was  rather 
cosmopolitan  than  national.  But  of  this  cosmopolitan 
education  Athens  remained  the  centre  throughout  the 
Macedonian  and  Roman  periods,  though  other  centres, 
such  as  Rhodes,  Tarsus,  and  Alexandria,  became  strong 
rivals.  Interest  now  centres  in  higher  education,  which 
has  become  wholly  intellectual  in'  character.  The  chief 
characteristics  of  this  period  are :  first,  the  organization  of 
the  various  schools  of  philosophy  finally  combined  into 
the  University  of  Athens;  second,  the  systematization  of 
higher  education  under  the  control  of,  and  finally  with  the 
support  of,  the  state.  While  there  is  great  emphasis 
upon  the  intellectual  and  philosophical  life,  education 
comes  to  be  of  minor  political  and  social  importance. 
Comparatively  little  material  is  to  be  found  bearing  upon 
the  actual  organization  of  Greek  education  during  all  this 
long  period,  save  as  its  general  features  are  presented  in 

295 


296  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

the  tendencies  of  the  new  education  and  of  the  philo¬ 
sophical  schools.  However,  the  discussion  of  Roman 
education  of  the  Graeco-Roman  period  will  supplement 
the  information  here  given  concerning  the  status  of 
Greek  education  during  much  of  this  period.  With  the 
ascendency  of  the  Christian  religion  a  new  influential  factor 
is  introduced  into  Greek  education,  this  factor  not  becom¬ 
ing  wholly  dominant,  however,  until  the  University  of 
Athens  is  closed  by  Justinian. 

The  Sources. — The  first  and  second  selections  given 
consist  of  a  decree  of  the  Athenian  Senate  and  one  of  the 
Assembly,  relating  to  the  education  of  the  ephebes  for 
some  year  about  a  century  previous  to  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era.  These  selections  are  taken  from  the 
collection  of  inscriptions  by  Dumont,  given  in  his  Essai 
sur  L' Ephebie  Attique. 

The  third  selection  is  an  extract  from  the  Panegyric 
of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  on  Saint  Basil,  and  dates  from 
the  fourth  Christian  century.  Gregory  was  a  student  at 
Athens  about  350  to  356  a.d.  Among  his  fellow- stu¬ 
dents  was  Basil,  with  whom  he  formed  an  intimate  friend¬ 
ship.  Both  Gregory  and  Basil  were  prominent  in  the 
conflict  with  Arianism,  and  both  held  prominent  places 
among  the  early  church  writers.  Both  were  primarily 
students,  though  Basil  gave  up  the  student  life  for  one  of 
activity  in  furthering  the  practical  interests  of  the  church. 
Basil  died  in  379,  and  though  Gregory  was  not  present  at 
the  funeral,  he  later  delivered  the  panegyric  upon  some 
anniversary  of  his  friend’s  death.  In  this  panegyric  he 
gives  a  brief  description  of  student  life  in  Athens  as  it  was 
during  the  period  of  their  attendance  at  the  university.  The 
fourth  selection  consists  of  the  greater  part  of  Plutarch’s 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education 


297 


essay  upon  the  Training  of  Children.  This  presents  the 
general  views  of  a  cosmopolitan  Greek  at  about  the  opening 
of  the  second  Christian  century.  While  cosmopolitan,  Plu¬ 
tarch  was  thoroughly  Greek  in  his  education  and  his  sym¬ 
pathies.  As  giving  a  scientific  though  extremely  practical 
exposition  of  the  best  Grecian  educational  ideas  and  prac¬ 
tices,  this  selection  from  Plutarch  might  have  been  classed 
with  that  from  Aristotle ;  but  placed  here,  it  will  serve  the 
additional  purpose  of  illustrating  the  persistence  of  these 
ideas,  four  centuries  later,  at  a  time  when  Greece  yet 
retained  her  intellectual  leadership. 

The  Philosophical  Schools.  —  The  schools  of  the  Soph¬ 
ists  were  entirely  private  schools,  and  for  the  most  part 
consisted  of  the  group  of  students  gathered  around  any 
one  instructor.  There  was  no  system  of  beliefs  or  unity 
of  methods  that  would  lead  to  the  formation  of  any  per¬ 
manent  institution.  Socrates  did  not  have  any  definite 
place  for  giving  instruction  or  any  definite  body  of  pupils. 
So  long  as  no  fees  were  exacted,  there  would  be  no  defi¬ 
nite  student  body.  Plato,  and  very  probably  Aristotle, 
followed  the  example  of  Socrates  in  this  respect.  But 
Plato’s  successor,  Speusippus,  demanded  regular  fees,  as 
did  also  the  teachers  of  the  other  philosophical  groups. 
This  gave  both  definiteness  and  continuity  of  administra¬ 
tion.  A  further  factor  in  the  development  of  definite 
schools  was  the  acquiring  of  definite  locations  and 
names.  The  leading  gymnasia  of  Athens  were  the 
Academy,  the  Cynosarges,  and  the  Lyceum.  These 
were  in  the  suburbs,  and  were  somewhat  of  the  nature 
of  public  parks,  being  provided  with  water  and  gardens 
as  well  as  exercise  grounds.  Plato  taught  chiefly  at  the 
Academy,  both  in  the  public  gymnasium  and  in  pri- 


298  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

vate  grounds  which  he  acquired  near  by.  This  plot  of 
ground,  together  with  the  headship  of  the  school,  Plato 
left  to  his  nephew,  Speusippus.  The  small  property 
became  the  nucleus  of  a  considerable  foundation,  for  it 
was  enriched,  not  only  by  fees,  but  by  gifts  from  wealthy 
patrons  and  by  the  bequests  of  the  heads  of  the  school. 
In  time  friends  and  pupils  also  made  bequests,  until  a  con¬ 
siderable  endowment  was  accumulated.  The  heads  of  the 
school  were  called  scholarchs ,  and  received  their  positions 
either  through  the  designation  of  their  predecessor  or, 
later,  by  election.  In  a  similar  way  Aristotle  settled  in 
the  Lyceum  and  Antisthenes  in  the  Cynosarges.  Later 
the  pupils  of  the  latter  removed  to  the  frescoed  portico  in 
Athens,  whence  they  were  called  Stoics.  Epicurus 
taught  in  his  own  private  grounds,  which  he  left  as  the 
nucleus  of  an  endowment  for  his  school.  As  with  the  suc¬ 
cessors  of  Plato,  each  of  these  groups  became  definitely 
organized  into  a  school  with  an  endowment,  and  with  a 
recognized  head,  or  scholarch. 

The  attendance  on  these  schools  was  very  large.  Theo¬ 
phrastus,  the  successor  of  Aristotle  in  the  headship  of  the 
Lyceum,  is  said  to  have  had  more  than  two  thousand  pupils 
at  one  time.  The  scholarchs  were  assisted  by  a  staff  of 
assistants  who  collectively  constituted  the  school.  At 
any  rate  Lycon,  the  successor  of  Theophrastus,  bequeathed 
the  school  to  his  pupils,  or  assistants,  collectively,  leaving 
to  them  the  selection  or  election  of  a  scholarch.  Later 
on  the  scholarchs  for  some  of  the  schools  were  elected  by 
the  council,  usually  after  some  form  of  examination. 
Still  later,  when  these  positions  became  salaried  imperial 
offices,  disputed  elections  were  settled,  or  positions  filled, 
by  imperial  officers,  sometimes  by  the  emperor  himself. 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education  299 

Even  in  the  early  period,  in  addition  to  the  immediate 
group  of  assistants  or  favorite  pupils,  a  great  number  of 
minor  teachers  of  grammar,  rhetoric,  dialectic,  physics, 
and  mathematics  gathered  around  these  four  great  schools 
of  philosophy.  Besides  these  philosophers  and  Sophists, 
there  were  numerous  private  tutors  who  prepared  candi¬ 
dates  for  entrance  to  these  higher  schools,  helped  the 
younger  students  in  their  exercises,  and  directed  them  in 
their  reading  and  note  work.  The  philosophical  chairs 
thus  became  the  centre  of  the  intellectual  activity  in  all 
Greece. 

The  character  of  the  work  of  these  schools  was  very 
different  from  that  of  their  founders.  From  the  very  first 
the  scholarchs  attempted  only  to  set  forth  the  ideas  of  the 
respective  founders  of  the  schools.  This  is  what  distin¬ 
guishes  them  from  the  earlier  schools :  there  was  no 
attempt  to  apply  the  ideas  of  the  great  teachers  in  inves¬ 
tigation,  research,  or  even  in  discussion  on  new  topics. 
For  the  most  part  the  work  became  as  formal  and  as  arti¬ 
ficial  as  the  work  of  the  Sophists,  only  it  was  directed 
toward  a  different  object.  The 'philosophical  schools  at 
least  had  a  definite  body  of  doctrine  to  expound  and  to 
comment  upon.  In  the  case  of  the  Lyceum  the  works  of 
the  founder  were  soon  removed  from  Athens,  and  the  ideas 
of  Aristotle  were  preserved  only  in  fragments,  chiefly  by 
means  of  note-books  in  the  school.  Not  only  did  the 
Lyceum  fail  to  develop  new  doctrine ;  it  did  not  even  suc¬ 
ceed  in  preserving  the  old.  In  all  these  schools  there 
grew  up  a  reverence  for  the  written  word  that  had  great 
influence,  literary  and  religious  as  well  as  educational. 
So  far  as  the  spirit  of  education  was  concerned,  this  later 
development  was  distinctly  inferior  to  the  earlier  conditions. 


300  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

The  University  of  Athens  originated  in  a  combination  of 
these  philosophical  schools  with  the  old  Athenian  institu¬ 
tion  for  the  education  of  the  ephebes.  This  latter  educa¬ 
tion  had  originally  consisted  of  the  two  years’  military 
training  and  service  required  of  all  Athenian  youths  dur¬ 
ing  their  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  years.  During  the 
period  of  the  new  education  the  military  rigor  was  so 
much  relaxed  that  much  of  the  time  could  be  devoted  to 
intellectual  ends  in  the  philosophical  and  sophistic  schools. 
After  the  Peloponnesian  War  the  term  of  ephebic  service  was 
reduced  to  one  year,  and  after  the  Macedonian  conquest 
it  was  made  wholly  optional.  Coincident  with  these 
changes,  the  literary  element  of  the  training  grew  in 
importance  until  finally  it  dominated.  It  became  custom¬ 
ary  for  the  entire  corps  of  ephebes  to  attend  the  lectures 
either  of  one  philosophical  school,  or  of  all  save  that  of 
Epicurus;  for  it  does  not  appear  that  during  this  stage 
of  their  education  they  were  allowed  to  patronize  this 
institution.  The  term  of  higher  education  under  state 
control  was  reduced  to  one  year,  during  which  period  the 
youth  were  under  the  direction  of  an  elective  state  officer, 
the  rector,  who  held  office  for  but  one  year.  A  change 
of  quite  as  great  importance  as  that  of  making  this  course 
optional  for  Athenian  youths  was  the  admission  of  foreign- 
born  youths  to  the  ephebic  corps.  During  the  Roman 
period  the  foreign  youths  were  quite  as  numerous  as  the 
native.  The  old  military  state  training  had  then  become 
a  literary  university  training.  This  year  of  study  under 
the  direction  of  the  state  officer  came  to  be  merely  intro¬ 
ductory.  Many  remained  for  a  much  longer  period,  and 
their  number  was  supplemented  by  the  great  many  adult 
students  drawn  from  all  quarters  by  the  philosophical 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education 


301 


schools.  During  the  earlier  Christian  centuries  the  period 
of  study  had  extended  to  four  or  five  years,  or  even  more. 

Two  further  changes  brought  about  an  organization 
of  these  various  educational  institutions  into  one  more 
unified.  The  military  operations  of  Philip  V.  of  Mace- 
don  (200  b.c. )  and  of  the  dictator  Sulla  (86  b.c.)  resulted  in 
the  injury,  if  not  the  destruction,  of  the  gymnasia  situated 
in  the  suburbs.  These  schools  then  followed  the  Stoics 
into  the  city.  There,  in  public  gymnasia,  especially  that 
of  Ptolemy  and  later  that  of  Hadrian,  and  also  in  private 
theatres,  these  schools  were  conducted.  The  second  of 
these  changes  was  the  public  support  given  to  these  schools 
of  philosophy,  and  to  the  chairs  of  rhetoric,  by  the  Roman 
Empire  from  the  first  Christian  century  on  to  the  suppres¬ 
sion  of  the  University.  This  was  begun  by  Vespasian, 
though  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines  were  the  emperors 
especially  interested  in  building  up  the  University  of 
Athens,  and  in  making  it  the  centre  of  learning  for  the 
Empire.  These  chairs,  never  more  than  ten  in  all,  did 
not  constitute  all  of  the  University.  Their  work  was  sup¬ 
plemented  by  that  of  a  considerable  number  of  private  lec¬ 
turers,  who  continued  the  old  practice  of  lecturing  for  fees, 
and  by  a  great  number  of  tutors  and  pedagogues,  who  were 
responsible  for  the  work  and  conduct  of  the  younger  stu¬ 
dents.  During  the  Christian  centuries  the  University  life 
presents  many  characteristics  of  University  life  in  mediaeval 
or  modern  times.  The  ephebic  organization  seems  to  have 
degenerated  into  students’  clubs  or  secret  societies.  Initi¬ 
ation  into  such  societies,  hazing,  the  wearing  of  distinctive 
gowns,  and  many  other  customs,  present  strong  resem¬ 
blances  to  characteristic  features  of  the  mediaeval  Univer¬ 
sity,  some  of  these  being  described  in  the  selection  from 


302  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Gregory.  Such  similarities  have  led  to  the  theory  that 
there  was  a  direct  connection  between  the  University  of 
Athens  of  the  sixth  century,  and  the  mediaeval  universities 
of  the  eleventh.  The  University  of  Athens  as  a  centre  of 
classical  learning  aroused  the  opposition  of  the  Christian 
church.  This  opposition,  together  with  other  causes, 
finally  led  to  the  suppression  of  the  University  by  the 
Emperor  Justinian,  529  a.d.  As  long  previous  to  this 
decree  the  rhetorical  and  sophistic  schools  had  disappeared, 
it  was  only  a  few  of  the  philosophical  teachers,  chiefly  of 
the  Neoplatonic  school,  that  at  the  decree  of  Justinian 
then  fled  to  Persia. 


A  Decree  of  the  Athenian  Senate ,  from  about  1 00  B.C. 1 

‘  That  whereas  the  Ephebi  of  last  year  sacrificed  duly 
at  their  matriculation  in  the  Guildhall,  by  the  sacred  fire 
of  the  City,  in  the  presence  of  their  Rector  and  the  Priests 
of  the  People  and  the  Pontiffs,  according  to  the  laws  and 
decrees,  and  conducted  the  procession  in  honour  of  Arte¬ 
mis  the  Huntress,  .  .  .  and  took  part  in  others  of  like 
kind,  and  ran  in  the  customary  torch-races,  and  escorted 
the  statue  of  Pallas  to  Phalerum,  and  helped  to  bring  it 
back  again,  and  light  it  on  its  way  in  perfect  order,  and 
carried  Dionysus  also  from  his  shrine  into  the  theatre  in 
like  fashion,  and  brought  a  bull  worthy  of  the  God  at  the 
Dionysiac  festival,  .  .  .  and  took  part  in  all  due  offerings 
to  our  Gods  and  our  Benefactors,  as  the  laws  and  the 
decrees  ordain ;  and  have  been  regular  in  their  attendance 
all  the  year  at  the  gymnasia,  and  punctually  obeyed  their 
Rector,  thinking  it  of  paramount  importance  to  observe 
discipline,  and  to  study  diligently  what  the  People  has 
prescribed;  —  whereas  there  has  been  no  ground  for  com¬ 
plaint,  but  they  have  kept  all  the  rules  made  by  their  Rec- 

1  Dumont,  Essai  sur  V Ephebie  Attique ,  II.  152.  Translation  taken  from 
Capes.  University  Life  in  Ancient  Athens ,  pp.  21  et  seq. 


303 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education 

tor  and  their  Tutors,  and  have  attended  without  fail  the 
lectures  of  Zenodotus  in  the  Ptolemaeum  and  the  Lyceum 
as  also  those  of  all  the  other  Professors  of  Philosophy  in 
the  Lyceum  and  Academy  ;  and  have  mounted  guard  in 
good  order  at  the  popular  assemblies,  and  have  gone  out 
to  meet  our  Roman  friends  and  benefactors  on  their  visits; 

.  .  .  and  have  given  70  drachmae,  as  the  law  provides  to 
the  proper  functionaries  to  provide  the  goblet  for  the 
Mother  of  the  Gods,  and  offered  another  also  in  the  tem¬ 
ple  at  Eleusis  ;  and  have  marched  out  under  arms  to  the 
Athenian  frontiers,  and  made  themselves  acquainted  with 
the  country  and  the  roads,  .  .  .  and  have  gone  out  to 
Marathon  and  offered  their  garlands  and  said  prayers  at 
the  shrine  of  the  heroes  who  died  fighting  for  their  coun¬ 
try  s  freedom ;  .  .  .  and  have  gone  on  shipboard  to  the 
feast  of  Aiantaea,  and  held  boat-races  and  processions 
there,  and  earned  the  praises  of  the  Salaminians,  and  the 
present  of  a  golden  crown  because  of  their  good  discipline 
and  orderly  behaviour;  —  and  whereas  they  have  lived  in 
friendly  harmony  all  the  year  without  a  jar  as  their  Rector 
wished,  and  have  passed  their  Examinations  in  the  Senate 
House  as  the  law  requires;  and  being  full  of  honourable 
ambition  and  desire  to  help  their  Rector  in  his  public-spir¬ 
ited  endeavours  to  promote  the  public  good  as  well  as  their 
own  credit,  they  have  taken  in  hand  one  of  the  old  cata¬ 
pults  that  was  out  of  gear,  and  repairing  it  at  their  own 
expense,  have  learnt  once  more  how  to  use  the  engine,  the 
practice  of  which  had  been  disused  for  years ;  and  in  all 
other  matters  have  conducted  themselves  with  all  propriety, 
and  have  provided  all  that  was  required  for  the  religious 
services  of  their  own  gymnasia  —  to  show  the  wish  of  the 
Senate  and  the  People  to  honour  them  for  their  merits  and 
obedience  to  the  laws  and  to  their  Rector,  in  their  first 
year  of  adult  life,  the  Senate  is  agreed  to  instruct  the  Presi¬ 
dents  of  the  next  assembly  following,  to  lay  before  the 
People  for  approval  the  Resolution  of  the  Senate  to  pass 
an  honorary  vote  in  praise  of  the  Ephebi  of  last  year,  and 
to  present  them  with  a  golden  crown  for  their  constant 
piety  and  discipline  and  public  spirit,  and  to  compliment 
their  Tutors,  their  trainer  Timon,  and  the  fencing  master 
Satyrus,  and  the  marksman  Nicander,  and  the  bowman 


304  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Asclepiades,  and  Calchedon  the  instructor  in  the  catapults, 
and  the  attendants,  and  to  award  a  crown  of  leaves  to 
each ;  and  to  have  the  decree  engraved  by  the  Secretary 
for  the  time  being  on  two  pillars  of  stone,  to  be  placed 
one  in  the  Market-place,  and  the  second  wherever  may 
seem  best.’ 

A  Decree  of  the  Athenian  Assembly  from  the  Same  Period 1 

‘  Whereas  the  People  always  has  a  hearty  interest  in  the 
training  and  discipline  of  the  Ephebi,  hoping  that  the  ris¬ 
ing  generation  may  grow  up  to  be  men  able  to  take  good 
care  of  their  fatherland,  and  has  passed  laws  to  require 
them  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  country,  of  the  guard- 
posts  and  of  the  frontiers,  and  to  train  themselves  as  sol-  . 
diers  in  the  use  of  arms,  thanks  to  which  discipline  the 
City  has  been  decked  with  many  glories  and  imposing  tro¬ 
phies  ;  and  whereas  on  this  account  the  People  has  always 
chosen  a  Rector  of  unblemished  character,  and  accord¬ 
ingly  last  year  Dionysius  the  son  of  Socrates,  the  Phyla- 
sian,  had  the  care  of  the  Ephebi  entrusted  to  him  by  the 
People,  and  duly  sacrificed  with  them  at  their  matricula¬ 
tion,  .  .  .  and  has  trained  them  worthily,  keeping  them 
constantly  engaged  at  the  gymnasia,  and  making  them  all 
efficient  in  their  drill,  and  insisting  on  decorum,  that  they 
should  not  fail  throughout  the  year  in  obedience  to  the 
Generals,  the  Tutors  and  himself  ;  and  whereas  he  has 
watched  over  their  habits  of  order  and  of  self-control, 
taking  them  with  him  to  the  Professor’s  Lectures,  and 
being  present  always  at  their  courses  of  instruction  .  .  . 
and  whereas  he  has  also  roused  their  public  spirit  by  teach¬ 
ing  them  to  be  good  marksmen  with  the  catapult,  and 
accompanied  them  in  their  rounds  to  the  guardposts  and 
the  frontiers  .  .  .  and  has  arranged  the  boat-races  in  the 
processions  at  Munychia  .  .  .  and  also  the  footraces  in  the 
gymnasia,  and  the  escorts  of  honour  for  our  Roman  friends 
and  allies  .  .  .  and  reviewed  them  on  parade  at  the  The- 
seia  and  Epitaphia  .  .  .  and  has  been  vigilant  in  all  cases 
to  maintain  their  pride,  being  constant  in  attendance  on 


1  Same  sources. 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education 


305 


them  through  the  year,  and  has  watched  over  their  studies, 
and  ruled  them  with  impartial  justice,  keeping  them  in 
sound  health  and  friendly  intercourse,  treating  them  with 
a  father’s  care  —  in  return  for  all  of  which  the  Ephebi 
have  presented  him  with  a  golden  crown  and  a  bronze 
statue,  to  show  their  sense  of  his  character  and  loving 
care ;  and  whereas  he  has  passed  his  accounts  as  the  law 
requires,  the  Senate  and  the  People  wishing  to  show  due 
honour  to  such  Rectors  as  serve  with  merit  and  impartiality, 
Resolve  to  praise  Dionysius,  late  Rector  of  the  Ephebi  of 
last  year  and  to  present  him  with  a  golden  crown,  and 
have  proclamation  made  thereof  in  the  great  festival  of 
Dionysus,  and  also  at  the  athletic  contests  of  the  Panatha- 
naic  and  Eleusinian  feasts.’ 


Selection  from  the  Panegyric  on  Saint  Basil ,  by  Gregory 

Nazienzen 

15.  We  were  contained  by  Athens,  like  two  branches 
of  some  river-stream,  for  after  leaving  the  common  foun¬ 
tain  of  our  fatherland,  we  had  been  separated  on  our 
varying  pursuits  of  culture,  and  were  now  again  united  by 
the  impulsion  of  God  no  less  than  by  our  own  agreement. 
I  preceded  him  by  a  little,  but  he  soon  followed  me,  to  be 
welcomed  with  great  and  brilliant  hopes.  For  he  was 
versed  in  many  languages,  before  his  arrival,  and  it  was 
a  great  thing  for  either  of  us  to  outstrip  the  other  in  the 
attainment  of  some  object  of  our  study.  And  I  may  well 
add  as  a  seasoning  to  my  speech,  a  short  narrative,  which 
will  be  a  reminder  to  those  who  know  it,  a  source  of  infor¬ 
mation  to  those  who  do  not.  Most  of  the  young  men  at 
Athens  in  their  folly  are  mad  after  rhetorical  skill  —  not 
only  those  who  are  ignobly  born  and  unknown,  but  even 
the  noble  and  illustrious,  in  the  general  mass  of  young 
men  difficult  to  keep  under  control.  They  are  just  like 
men  devoted  to  horses  and  exhibitions,  as  we  see,  at  the 
horse  races ;  they  leap,1  they  shout,  raise  clouds  of  dust, 

1  This  passage  refers  to  the  speculators  who  unite  in  sympathy  with,  and 
in  their  excitement,  imitate,  as  far  as  possible,  the  actions  of  those  who  drive 
the  chariots  in  the  races. 


306  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

they  drive  in  their  seats,  they  beat  the  air  (instead  of  the 
horses)  with  their  fingers  as  whips,  they  yoke  and  unyoke 
the  horses,  though  they  are  none  of  theirs ;  they  readily 
exchange  with  one  another  drivers,  horses,  positions, 
leaders ;  and  who  are  they  who  do  this  ?  Often  poor  and 
needy  fellows,  without  the  means  of  support  for  a  single 
day.  This  is  just  how  the  students  feel  in  regard  to  their 
own  tutors,  and  their  rivals,  in  their  eagerness  to  increase 
their  own  numbers  and  thereby  enrich  them.  The  matter 
is  absolutely  absurd  and  silly.  Cities,  roads,  harbours, 
mountain  tops,  coast  lines  are  seized  upon  —  in  short, 
every  part  of  Attica,  or  of  the  rest  of  Greece,  with  most  of 
the  inhabitants ;  for  even  these  they  have  divided  between 
the  rival  parties. 

1 6.  Whenever  any  newcomer  arrives  and  falls  into  the 
hands  of  those  who  seize  upon  him,  either  by  force  or 
willingly,  they  observe  this  Attic  law,  of  combined  jest  and 
earnest.  He  is  first  conducted  to  the  house  of  one  of 
those  who  were  the  first  to  receive  him,  or  of  his  friends, 
or  kinsmen,  or  countrymen,  or  of  those  who  are  eminent 
in  debating  power  and  purveyors  of  arguments  and  there¬ 
fore  especially  honoured  among  them ;  and  their  reward 
consists  in  the  gain  of  adherents.  He  is  next  subjected 
to  the  raillery  of  any  one  who  will,  with  the  intention,  I 
suppose,  of  checking  the  conceit  of  the  newcomers,  and 
reducing  them  to  subjection  at  once.  The  raillery  is  of  a 
more  argumentative  or  insolent  kind,  according  to  the 
refinement  or  boorishness  of  the  railer :  and  the  perform¬ 
ance  which  seems  very  fearful  and  brutal  to  those  who  do 
not  know  it,  is  to  those  who  have  experienced  it,  very 
pleasant  and  humane :  for  its  threats  are  feigned  rather 
than  real.  Next  he  is  conducted,  in  procession,  from  the 
market  place  to  the  bath.  The  procession  is  formed  by 
those  who  are  charged  with  it  in  the  young  man’s  honour, 
who  arrange  themselves  in  two  ranks  separated  by  an 
interval,  and  precede  him  to  the  bath.  But  when  they 
have  approached  it,  they  shout  and  leap  wildly,  as  if  pos¬ 
sessed,  shouting  that  they  must  not  advance,  but  stay, 
since  the  bath  will  not  admit  them;  and  at  the  same  time 
frighten  the  youth  by  furiously  knocking  at  the  doors ; 
then  allowing  him  to  enter,  they  present  him  with  his 


Cosmopolitan  •  Greek  Education 


307 


freedom,  and  receive  him  after  the  bath  as  an  equal  and 
one  of  themselves.  This  they  considered  the  most  pleas¬ 
ant  part  of  the  ceremony,  as  being  a  speedy  change  and 
release  from  annoyances.  On  this  occasion  I  not  only 
refused  to  put  to  shame  my  friend,  the  great  Basil,  out  of 
respect  for  the  gravity  of  his  character,  and  the  ripeness 
of  his  reasoning  powers,  but  also  persuaded  all  the  rest  of 
the  students  to  treat  him  likewise,  who  happened  not  to 
know  him.  For  he  was  from  the  first,  respected  by  most 
of  them,  his  reputation  having  preceded  him.  The  result 
was  that  he  was  the  only  one  to  escape  the  general  rule, 
and  be  accorded  a  greater  honour  than  belongs  to  a  fresh¬ 
man’s  position. 


Selections  from  the  Discourse  touching  the  Training  of 

Children ,  by  Plutarch 1 

1.  The  course  which  ought  to  be  taken  for  the  training 
of  free-born  children,  and  the  means  whereby  their  man¬ 
ners  may  be  rendered  virtuous,  will,  with  the  reader’s  leave, 
be  the  subject  of  our  present  disquisition. 

******* 

4.  .  .  .  What  we  are  wont  to  say  of  arts  and  sciences  may 
be  said  also  concerning  virtue :  that  there  is  a  concurrence  of 
three  things  requisite  to  the  completing  thereof  in  practice, 
—  which  are  nature,  reason,  and  use.  Now  by  reason  here 
I  would  be  understood  to  mean  learning ;  and  by  use,  ex¬ 
ercise.  Now  the  principles  come  from  instruction,  the 
practice  comes  from  exercise,  and  perfection  from  all  three 
combined.  And  accordingly  as  either  of  the  three  is  de¬ 
ficient,  virtue  must  needs  be  defective.  For  if  nature  be 
not  improved  by  instruction,  it  is  blind ;  if  instruction  be 
not  assisted  by  nature,  it  is  maimed ;  and  if  exercise  fail 
of  the  assistance  of  both,  it  is  imperfect  as  to  the  attain¬ 
ment  of  its  end.  And  as  in  husbandry  it  is  first  requisite 
that  the  soil  be  fertile,  next  that  the  husbandman  be  skil- 

1  Translation  by  Simon  Ford,  D.D.,  in  Professor  W.  W.  Goodwin’s  edition 
of  Plutarch’s  Morals. 


Three  things 
requisite  for 
virtue : 
nature, 
reason,  and 
use. 


The  care 
children. 


308  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

ful,  and  lastly  that  the  seed  he  sows  be  good ;  so  here 
nature  resembles  the  soil,  the  instructor  of  youth  the  hus¬ 
bandman,  and  the  rational  principles  and  precepts  which 
are  taught,  the  seed.  And  I  would  peremptorily  affirm 
that  all  these  met  and  jointly  conspired  to  the  completing 
of  the  souls  of  those  universally  celebrated  men,  Pythag¬ 
oras,  Socrates,  and  Plato,  together  with  all  others  whose 
eminent  worth  hath  gotten  them  immortal  glory.  And 
happy  is  that  man  certainly,  and  well-beloved  of  the  Gods, 
on  whom  by  the  bounty  of  any  of  them  all  these  are  con¬ 
ferred. 

And  yet  if  any  one  thinks  that  those  in  whom  Nature 
hath  not  thoroughly  done  her  part  may  not  in  some  meas¬ 
ure  make  up  her  defects,  if  they  be  so  happy  as  to  light 
upon  good  teaching,  and  withal  apply  their  own  industry 
towards  the  attainment  of  virtue,  he  is  to  know  that  he  is 
very  much,  nay,  altogether,  mistaken.  For  as  a  good 
natural  capacity  may  be  impaired  by  slothfulness,  so  dull 
and  heavy  natural  parts  may  be  improved  by  instruction  ; 
and  whereas  negligent  students  arrive  not  at  the  capacity 
of  understanding  the  most  easy  things,  those  who  are  in¬ 
dustrious  conquer  the  greatest  difficulties.  And  many 
instances  we  may  observe,  that  give  us  a  clear  demonstra¬ 
tion  of  the  mighty  force  and  successful  efficacy  of  labor 
and  industry.  For  water  continually  dropping  will  wear 
hard  rocks  hollow ;  yea,  iron  and  brass  are  worn  out  with 
constant  handling.  Nor  can  we,  if  we  would,  reduce  the 
felloes  of  a  cart-wheel  to  their  former  straightness,  when 
once  they  have  been  bent  by  force ;  yea,  it  is  above  the 
power  of  force  to  straighten  the  bended  staves  sometimes 
of  used  by  actors  upon  the  stage.  So  far  is  that  which  labor 
effects,  though  against  nature,  more  potent  than  what  is 
produced  according  to  it.  .  .  . 

5.  The  next  thing  that  falls  under  our  consideration  is 
the  nursing  of  children,  which,  in  my  judgment,  the  mothers 
should  do  themselves.  .  .  .  For  childhood  is  a  tender 
thing,  and  easily  wrought  into  any  shape.  Yea,  and  the  very 
souls  of  children  readily  receive  the  impressions  of  those 
things  that  are  dropped  into  them  while  they  are  yet  but 
soft ;  but  when  they  grow  older,  they  will,  as  all  hard  things 
are,  be  more  difficult  to  be  wrought  upon.  And  as  soft 


309 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education 

wax  is  apt  to  take  the  stamp  of  the  seal,  so  are  the  minds 
of  children  to  receive  the  instructions  imprinted  on  them 
at  that  age.  Whence,  also,  it  seems  to  me  good  advice 
which  divine  Plato 1  gives  to  nurses,  not  to  tell  all  sorts  of 
common  tales  to  children  in  infancy,  lest  thereby  their 
minds  should  chance  to  be  filled  with  foolish  and  corrupt 
notions.  The  like  good  counsel  Phocylides,  the  poet, 
seems  to  give  in  this  verse  of  his  :  — 

‘  If  we’ll  have  virtuous  children,  we  should  choose 
Their  tenderest  age  good  principles  to  infuse.’ 

6.  Nor  are  we  to  omit  taking  due  care,  in  the  first  place, 
that  those  children  who  are  appointed  to  attend  upon  such 
young  nurslings,  and  to  be  bred  with  them  for  play-fellows, 
be  well-mannered,  and  next  that  they  speak  plain,  natural 
Greek ;  lest,  being  constantly  used  to  converse  with  per¬ 
sons  of  a  barbarous  language  and  evil  manners,  they  re¬ 
ceive  corrupt  tinctures  from  them.  For  it  is  a  true  proverb, 
that  if  you  live  with  a  lame  man,  you  will  learn  to  halt. 

7.  Next,  when  a  child  is  arrived  at  such  an  age  as  to  be  Choice  of  a 
put  under  the  care  of  pedagogues,  great  care  is  to  be  used  pedagogue, 
that  we  be  not  deceived  in  them,  and  so  commit  our  chil¬ 
dren  to  slaves  or  barbarians  or  cheating  fellows.  For  it  is 

a  course  never  enough  to  be  laughed  at  which  many  men 
nowadays  take  in  this  affair ;  for  if  any  of  their  servants 
be  better  than  the  rest,  they  dispose  some  of  them  to  fol¬ 
low  husbandry,  some  to  navigation,  some  to  merchandise, 
some  to  be  stewards  in  their  houses,  and  some,  lastly,  to 
put  out  their  money  to  use  for  them.  But  if  they  find  any 
slave  that  is  a  drunkard  or  a  glutton,  and  unfit  for  any 
other  business,  to  him  they  assign  the  government  of  their 
children  ;  whereas,  a  good  pedagogue  ought  to  be  such  a 
one  in  his  disposition  as  Phoenix,  tutor  to  Achilles,  was. 

And  now  I  come  to  speak  of  that  which  is  a  greater  Choice  of 
matter,  and  of  more  concern  than  any  that  I  have  said,  teachers. 
We  are  to  look  after  such  masters  for  our  children  as  are 
blameless  in  their  lives,  not  justly  reprovable  for  their  man¬ 
ners,  and  of  the  best  experience  in  teaching.  For  the  very 
spring  and  root  of  honesty  and  virtue  lies  in  the  felicity  of 


1  Plato,  Republic ,  II.  377;  p.  139  of  this  volume. 


310  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

lighting  on  good  education.  And  as  husbandmen  are  wont 
to  set  forks  to  prop  up  feeble  plants,  so  do  honest  school¬ 
masters  prop  up  youth  by  careful  instructions  and  admoni¬ 
tions,  that  they  may  duly  bring  forth  the  buds  of  good 
manners.  But  there  are  certain  fathers  nowadays  who 
deserve  that  men  should  spit  on  them  in  contempt,  who, 
before  making  any  proof  of  those  to  whom  they  design  to 
commit  the  teaching  of  their  children,  either  through  un¬ 
acquaintance,  or,  as  it  sometimes  falls  out,  through  unskil¬ 
fulness,  intrust  them  to  men  of  no  good  reputation,  or,  it 
may  be,  such  as  are  branded  with  infamy.  Although  they 
are  not  altogether  so  ridiculous,  if  they  offend  herein 
through  unskilfulness ;  but  it  is  a  thing  most  extremely  ab¬ 
surd,  when,  as  oftentimes  it  happens,  though  they  know 
and  are  told  beforehand,  by  those  who  understand  better 
than  themselves,  both  of  the  inability  and  rascality  of  cer¬ 
tain  schoolmasters,  they  nevertheless  commit  the  charge 
of  their  children  to  them,  sometimes  overcome  by  their 
fair  and  flattering  speeches,  and  sometimes  prevailed  on  to 
gratify  friends  who  entreat  them.  This  is  an  error  of  like 
nature  with  that  of  the  sick  man,  who,  to  please  his  friends, 
forbears  to  send  for  the  physician  that  might  save  his  life 
by  his  skill,  and  employs  a  mountebank  that  quickly  dis- 
patcheth  him  out  of  the  world ;  or  of  him  who  refuses  a 
skilful  shipmaster,  and  then,  at  his  friend’s  entreaty,  com¬ 
mits  the  care  of  his  vessel  to  one  that  is  therein  much  his 
inferior.  In  the  name  of  Jupiter  and  all  the  Gods,  tell  me 
how  can  that  man  deserve  the  name  of  a  father,  who  is  more 
concerned  to  gratify  others  in  their  requests,  than  to  have 
his  children  well  educated  ?  Or,  is  not  that  rather  fitly  ap¬ 
plicable  to  this  case,  which  Socrates,  that  ancient  philoso¬ 
pher,  was  wont  to  say,  —  that,  if  he  could  get  up  to  the 
highest  place  in  the  city,  he  would  lift  up  his  voice  and 
make  this  proclamation  thence  :  “  What  mean  you,  fellow- 
citizens,  that  you  thus  turn  every  stone  to  scrape  wealth 
together,  and  take  so  little  care  of  your  children,  to  whom, 
one  day,  you  must  relinquish  it  all  ?  ”  —  to  which  I  would 
add  this,  that  such  parents  do  like  him  that  is  solicitous 
about  his  shoe,  but  neglects  the  foot  that  is  to  wear  it. 
And  yet  many  fathers  there  are,  who  so  love  their  money 
and  hate  their  children,  that,  lest  it  should  cost  them  more 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education  3 1 1 

than  they  are  willing  to  spare  to  hire  a  good  schoolmaster 
for  them,  they  rather  choose  such  persons  to  instruct  their 
children  as  are  of  no  worth  ;  thereby  beating  down  the 
market,  that  they  may  purchase  ignorance  cheap.  It  was, 
therefore,  a  witty  and  handsome  jeer  which  Aristippus  be¬ 
stowed  on  a  sottish  father,  who  asked  him  what  he  would 
take  to  teach  his  child.  He  answered,  A  thousand  drachms. 
Whereupon  the  other  cried  out :  O  Hercules,  what  a  price 
you  ask  !  for  I  can  buy  a  slave  at  that  rate.  Do  so,  then, 
said  the  philosopher,  and  thou  shalt  have  two  slaves  instead 
of  one, —  thy  son  for  one,  and  him  thou  buyest  for  another. 

Lastly,  how  absurd  it  is,  when  thou  accustomest  thy  chil¬ 
dren  to  take  their  food  with  their  right  hands,  and  chidest 
them  if  they  receive  it  with  their  left,  yet  thou  takest  no 
care  at  all  that  the  principles  that  are  infused  into  them  be 
right  and  regular.  .  .  . 

8.  In  brief  therefore  I  say  (and  what  I  say  may  Importance 
justly  challenge  the  repute  of  an  oracle  rather  than  of  ofeducatlon' 
advice),  that  the  one  chief  thing  in  this  matter  —  which 
compriseth  the  beginning,  middle,  and  end  of  all  —  is  good 
education  and  regular  instruction  ;  and  that  these  two  afford 
great  help  and  assistance  towards  the  attainment  of  virtue 
and  felicity.  For  all  other  good  things  are  but  human  and 
of  small  value,  such  as  will  hardly  recompense  the  industy 
required  to  the  getting  of  them.  It  is,  indeed,  a  desirable 
thing  to  be  well  descended ;  but  the  glory  belongs  to  our 
ancestors.  Riches  are  valuable  ;  but  they  are  the  goods  of 
Fortune,  who  frequently  takes  them  from  those  that  have 
them,  and  carries  them  to  those  that  never  so  much  as 
hoped  for  them.  Yea,  the  greater  they  are,  the  fairer 
mark  are  they  for  those  to  aim  at  who  design  to  make  our 
bags  their  prize ;  I  mean  evil  servants  and  accusers.  But 
the  weightiest  consideration  of  all  is,  that  riches  may  be 
enjoyed  by  the  worst  as  well  as  the  best  of  men.  Glory 
is  a  thing  deserving  respect,  but  unstable ;  beauty  is  a 
prize  that  men  fight  to  obtain,  but,  when  obtained,  it  is  of 
little  continuance ;  health  is  a  precious  enjoyment,  but 
easily  impaired ;  strength  is  a  thing  desirable,  but  apt  to 
be  the  prey  of  diseases  and  old  age.  And,  in  general,  let 
any  man  who  values  himself  upon  strength  of  body  know 
that  he  makes  a  great  mistake;  for  what  indeed  is  any 


Speak  only 
on  proper 
occasions. 


312  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

proportion  of  human  strength,  if  compared  to  that  of  other 
animals,  such  as  elephants  and  bulls  and  lions  ?  But  learn¬ 
ing  alone,  of  all  things  in  our  possession,  is  immortal  and 
divine.  And  two  things  there  are  that  are  most  peculiar 
to  human  nature,  reason  and  speech ;  of  which  two,  reason 
is  the  master  of  speech,  and  speech  is  the  servant  of  reason, 
impregnable  against  all  assaults  of  fortune,  not  to  be  taken 
away  by  false  accusation,  nor  impaired  by  sickness,  nor  en¬ 
feebled  by  old  age.  For  reason  alone  grows  youthful  by 
age;  and  time,  which  decays  all  other  things,  increaseth 
knowledge  in  us  in  our  decaying  years.  Yea,  war  itself, 
which  like  a  winter  torrent  bears  down  all  other  things 
before  it  and  carries  them  away  with  it,  leaves  learning 
alone  behind.  Whence  the  answer  seems  to  me  very 
remarkable,  which  Stilpo,  a  philosopher  of  Megara,  gave 
to  Demetrius,  who,  when  he  levelled  that  city  to  the 
ground  and  made  all  the  citizens  bondmen,  asked  Stilpo 
whether  he  had  lost  anything.  Nothing,  said  he,  for  war 
cannot  plunder  virtue.  To  this  saying  that  of  Socrates  also 
is  very  agreeable ;  who,  when  Gorgias  (as  I  take  it)  asked 
him  what  his  opinion  was  of  the  king  of  Persia,  and 
whether  he  judged  him  happy,  returned  answer,  that  he 
could  not  tell  what  to  think  of  him,  because  he  knew  not 
how  he  was  furnished  with  virtue  and  learning,  —  as  judg¬ 
ing  human  felicity  to  consist  in  those  endowments,  and  not 
in  those  which  are  subject  to  fortune. 

9.  Moreover,  as  it  is  my  advice  to  parents  that  they 
make  the  breeding  up  of  their  children  to  learning  the 
chiefest  of  their  care,  so  I  here  add,  that  the  learning 
they  ought  to  train  them  up  unto  should  be  sound  and 
wholesome,  and  such  as  is  most  remote  from  .those  trifles 
which  suit  the  popular  humor.  For  to  please  the  many  is 
to  displease  the  wise.  To  this  saying  of  mine  that  of 
Euripides  himself  bears  witness :  — 

I’m  better  skilled  to  treat  a  few,  my  peers, 

Than  in  a  crowd  to  tickle  vulgar  ears  ; 

Though  others  have  the  luck  on’t,  when  they  babble 
Most  to  the  wise,  then  most  to  please  the  rabble.1 

******* 


1  Euripides,  Hippolytus ,  986. 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education  313 

If  any  one  ask  what  the  next  thing  is  wherein  I  would 
have  children  instructed,  and  to  what  further  good  qualities 
I  would  have  them  inured,  I  answer,  that  I  think  it  advis¬ 
able  that  they  neither  speak  nor  do  anything  rashly ;  for, 
according  to  the  proverb,  the  best  things  are  the  most 
difficult.  But  extemporary  discourses  are  full  of  much 
ordinary  and  loose  stuff,  nor  do  such  speakers  well  know 
where  to  begin  or  where  to  make  an  end.  And  besides 
other  faults  which  those  who  speak  suddenly  are  com¬ 
monly  guilty  of,  they  are  commonly  liable  to  this 
great  one,  that  they  multiply  words  without  meas¬ 
ure;  whereas,  premeditation  will  not  suffer  a  man  to 
enlarge  his  discourse  beyond  a  due  proportion.  To  this 
purpose  it  is  reported  of  Pericles,  that,  being  often  called 
upon  by  the  people  to  speak,  he  would  not,  because  (as  he 
said)  he  was  unprepared.  And  Demosthenes  also,  who 
imitated  him  in  the  managery  of  public  affairs,  when  the 
Athenians  urged  him  to  give  his  counsel,  refused  it  with 
this  answer :  I  have  not  yet  prepared  myself.  Though  it 
may  be  that  this  story  is  a  mere  fiction,  brought  down  to 
us  by  uncertain  tradition,  without  any  credible  author. 
But  Demosthenes,  in  his  oration  against  Midias,  clearly 
sets  forth  the  usefulness  of  premeditation.  For  there  he 
says :  “  I  confess,  O  ye  Athenians !  that  I  came  hither 
provided  to  speak ;  and  I  will  by  no  means  deny  that  I 
have  spent  my  utmost  study  upon  the  composing  this 
oration.  For  it  had  been  a  pitiful  omission  in  me,  if, 
having  suffered  and  still  suffering  such  things,  I  should 
have  neglected  that  which  in  this  cause  was  to  be  spoken 
by  me.”  But  here  I  would  not  be  understood  altogether 
to  condemn  all  readiness  to  discourse  extempore,  nor  yet 
to  allow  the  use  of  it  upon  such  occasions  as  do  not  require 
it ;  but  we  are  to  use  it  only  as  we  do  physic.  Still,  before 
a  person  arrives  at  complete  manhood,  I  would  not  permit 
him  to  speak  upon  any  sudden  incident  occasion ;  though, 
after  he  has  attained  a  radicated  faculty  of  speaking,  he 
may  allow  himself  a  greater  liberty,  as  opportunity  is 
offered.  For  as  they  who  have  been  a  long  time  in  chains, 
when  they  are  at  last  set  at  liberty,  are  unable  to  walk,  on 
account  of  their  former  continual  restraint,  and  are  very 
apt  to  trip,  so  they  who  have  been  used  to  a  fettered  way 


Preparation 
necessary  for 
speech  and 
for  action. 


314  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Simplicity  of 

speech 

advised. 


Philosophy 
should  be 
the  chief 
pursuit. 


of  speaking  a  great  while,  if  upon  any  occasion  they  be 
enforced  to  speak  on  a  sudden,  will  hardly  be  able  to 
express  themselves  without  some  tokens  of  their  former 
confinement.  But  to  permit  those  that  are  yet  children 
to  speak  extemporarily  is  to  give  them  occasion  for 
extremely  idle  talk.  A  wretched  painter,  they  say,  show¬ 
ing  Apelles  a  picture,  told  him  withal  that  he  had  taken  a 
very  little  time  to  paint  it.  If  thou  hadst  not  told  me  so, 
said  Apelles,  I  see  cause  enough  to  believe  it  was  a  hasty 
draught ;  but  I  wonder  that  in  that  space  of  time  thou  hast 
not  painted  many  more  such  pictures. 

I  advise  therefore  (for  I  return  now  to  the  subject  that 
I  have  disgressed  from)  the  shunning  and  avoiding,  not 
merely  of  a  starched,  theatrical,  and  over-tragical  form  of 
speaking,  but  also  of  that  which  is  too  low  and  mean.  For 
that  which  is  too  swelling  is  not  fit  for  the  managery  of 
public  affairs ;  and  that,  on  the  other  side,  which  is  too 
thin  is  very  inapt  to  work  any  notable  impression  upon  the 
hearers.  For  as  it  is  not  only  requisite  that  a  man’s  body 
be  healthy,  but  also  that  it  be  of  a  firm  constitution,  so 
ought  a  discourse  to  be  not  only  sound,  but  nervous  also. 
For  though  such  as  is  composed  cautiously  may  be  com¬ 
mended,  yet  that  is  all  it  can  arrive  at ;  whereas  that  which 
hath  some  adventurous  passages  in  it  is  admired  also. 
And  my  opinion  is  the  same  concerning  the  affections  of 
the  speaker’s  mind.  For  he  must  be  neither  of  a  too  con¬ 
fident  nor  of  a  too  mean  and  dejected  spirit;  for  the  one 
is  apt  to  lead  to  impudence,  the  other  to  servility  ;  and 
much  of  the  orator’s  art,  as  well  as  great  circumspection,  is 
required  to  direct  his  course  skilfully  betwixt  the  two.  .  .  . 

10.  Wherefore,  though  we  ought  not  to  permit  an  in¬ 
genuous  child  entirely  to  neglect  any  of  the  common  sorts 
of  learning,  so  far  as  they  may  be  gotten  by  lectures  or 
from  public  shows ;  yet  I  would  have  him  to  salute  these 
only  as  in  his  passage,  taking  a  bare  taste  of  each  of  them 
(seeing  no  man  can  possibly  attain  to  perfection  in  all),  and 
to  give  philosophy  the  pre-eminence  of  them  all.  I  can 
illustrate  my  meaning  by  an  example.  It  is  a  fine  thing 
to  sail  round  and  visit  many  cities,  but  it  is  profitable  to 
fix  our  dwelling  in  the  best.  .  .  .  Whence  it  follows,  that 
we  ought  to  make  philosophy  the  chief  of  all  our  learning. 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education  315 

For  though,  in  order  to  the  welfare  of  the  body,  the  in¬ 
dustry  of  men  hath  found  out  two  arts,  —  medicine,  which 
assists  to  the  recovery  of  lost  health  and  gymnastics,  which 
help  us  to  attain  a  sound  constitution,  —  yet  there  is  but 
one  remedy  for  the  distempers  and  diseases  of  the  mind, 
and  that  is  philosophy.  For  by  the  advice  and  assistance 
thereof  it  is  that  we  come  to  understand  what  is  honest, 
and  what  dishonest;  what  is  just,  and  what  unjust;  in  a 
word,  what  we  are  to  seek,  and  what  to  avoid.  We  learn 
by  it  how  we  are  to  demean  ourselves  towards  the  Gods,  Its 
towards  our  parents,  our  elders,  the  laws,  strangers,  gov-  advantages- 
ernors,  friends,  wives,  children,  and  servants.  That  is,  we 
are  to  worship  the  Gods,  to  honor  our  parents,  to  reverence 
our  elders,  to  be  subject  to  the  laws,  to  obey  our  governors, 
to  love  our  friends,  to  use  sobriety  towards  our  wives,  to 
be  affectionate  to  our  children,  and  not  to  treat  our  ser¬ 
vants  insolently;  and  (which  is  the  chiefest  lesson  of  all) 
not  to  be  overjoyed  in  prosperity  nor  too  much  dejected 
in  adversity ;  not  to  be  dissolute  in  our  pleasures,  nor  in 
our  anger  to  be  transported  with  brutish  rage  and  fury. 

These  things  I  account  the  principal  advantages  which  we 
gain  by  philosophy.  For  to  use  prosperity  generously  is 
the  part  of  a  man ;  to  manage  it  so  as  to  decline  envy,  of 
a  well  governed  man ;  to  master  our  pleasures  by  reason 
is  the  property  of  wise  men ;  and  to  moderate  anger  is  the 
attainment  only  of  extraordinary  men.  But  those  of  all 
men  I  count  most  complete,  who  know  how  to  mix  and 
temper  the  managery  of  civil  affairs  with  philosophy ;  see¬ 
ing  they  are  thereby  masters  of  two  of  the  greatest  good 
things  that  are,  —  a  life  of  public  usefulness  as  statesmen, 
and  a  life  of  calm  tranquillity  as  students  of  philosophy. 

For,  whereas  there  are  three  sorts  of  lives, — the  life  of 
action,  the  life  of  contemplation,  and  the  life  of  pleasure, 

—  the  man  who  is  utterly  abandoned  and  a  slave  to  pleas¬ 
ure  is  brutish  and  mean-spirited ;  he  that  spends  his  time 
in  contemplation  without  action  is  an  unprofitable  man ; 
and  he  that  lives  in  action  and  is  destitute  of  philosophy 
is  a  rustical  man,  and  commits  many  absurdities.  Where¬ 
fore  we  are  to  apply  our  utmost  endeavor  to  enable  our¬ 
selves  for  both ;  that  is,  to  manage  public  employment, 
and  withal,  at  convenient  seasons,  to  give  ourselves  to 


Value  of 
literature  in 
education. 


Importance 

of 

gymnastic. 


316  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

philosophical  studies.  Such  statesmen  were  Pericles  and 
Archytas1  the  Tarentine  ;  such  were  Dion2  the  Syracusan 
and  Epaminondas3  the  Theban,  both  of  whom  were  of 
Plato’s  familiar  acquaintance. 

I  think  it  not  necessary  to  spend  many  more  words 
about  this  point,  the  instruction  of  children  in  learning. 
Only  it  may  be  profitable  at  least,  or  even  necessary,  not 
to  omit  procuring  for  them  the  writings  of  ancient  authors, 
but  to  make  such  a  collection  of  them  as  husbandmen  are 
wont  to  do  of  all  needful  tools.  For  of  the  same  nature  is 
the  use  of  books  to  scholars,  as  being  the  tools  and  instru¬ 
ments  of  learning,  and  withal  enabling  them  to  derive 
knowledge  from  its  proper  fountains. 

11.  In  the  next  place,  the  exercise  of  the  body  must  not 
be  neglected ;  but  children  must  be  sent  to  schools  of 
gymnastics,  where  they  may  have  sufficient  employment 
that  way  also.  This  will  conduce  partly  to  a  more  hand¬ 
some  carriage,  and  partly  to  the  improvement  of  their 
strength.  For  the  foundation  of  a  vigorous  old  age  is  a 
good  constitution  of  the  body  in  childhood.  Wherefore, 
as  it  is  expedient  to  provide  those  things  in  fair  weather 
which  may  be  useful  to  the  mariners  in  a  storm,  so  it  is  to 
keep  good  order  and  govern  ourselves  by  rules  of  temper¬ 
ance  in  youth,  as  the  best  provision  we  can  lay  in  for  age. 
Yet  must  they  husband  their  strength,  so  as  not  to  become 
dried  up  (as  it  were)  and  destitute  of  strength  to  follow 
their  studies.  For,  according  to  Plato,  sleep  and  weari¬ 
ness  are  enemies  to  the  arts. 

But  why  do  I  stand  so  long  on  these  things  ?  I  hasten 
to  speak  of  that  which  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  even 
beyond  all  that  has  been  spoken  of ;  namely,  I  would  have 
boys  trained  for  the  contests  of  wars  by  practice  in  the 

1  A  famous  geometrician  and  astronomer,  who  was  seven  times  elected 
governor  of  his  native  city  during  the  fourth  century  B.c. 

2  A  pupil  of  Plato,  and  a  scholar  attached  to  the  court  of  Dionysius  the 
Elder  and  Dionysius  the  Younger  of  Syracuse.  The  latter  tyrant  he  over¬ 
threw,  substituting  for  his  sway  the  rule  of  a  philosopher.  This  proved  un¬ 
popular,  and  Dion  was  overthrown  and  slain,  354  B.C. 

3  The  soldier  and  statesman  who  raised  Thebes  to  the  hegemony  of  Greece. 
Killed  in  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  362  B.C. 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education  317 

throwing  of  darts,  shooting  of  arrows,  and  hunting  of  wild 
beasts.  For  we  must  remember  in  war  the  goods  of  the 
conquered  are  proposed  as  rewards  to  the  conquerors. 
But  war  does  not  agree  with  a  delicate  habit  of  body,  used 
only  to  the  shade ;  for  even  one  lean  soldier  that  hath  been 
used  to  military  exercises  shall  overthrow  whole  troops  of 
mere  wrestlers  who  know  nothing  of  war.  But,  somebody 
may  say,  whilst  you  profess  to  give  precepts  for  the  edu¬ 
cation  of  all  free-born  children,  why  do  you  carry  the  mat¬ 
ter  so  as  to  seem  only  to  accommodate  those  precepts  to 
the  rich,  and  neglect  to  suit  them  also  to  the  children  of 
poor  men  and  plebeians?  To  which  objection  it  is  no 
difficult  thing  to  reply.  For  it  is  my  desire  that  all  chil¬ 
dren  whatsoever  may  partake  of  the  benefit  of  education 
alike ;  but  if  yet  any  persons,  by  reason  of  the  narrowness 
of  their  estates,  cannot  make  use  of  my  precepts,  let  them 
not  blame  me  that  give  them,  but  Fortune,  which  disableth 
them  from  making  the  advantage  by  them  they  otherwise 
might.  Though  even  poor  men  must  use  their  utmost 
endeavor  to  give  their  children  the  best  education ;  or,  if 
they  cannot,  they  must  bestow  upon  them  the  best  that 
their  abilities  will  reach.  Thus  much  I  thought  fit  here 
to  insert  in  the  body  of  my  discourse,  that  I  might  the 
better  be  enabled  to  annex  what  I  have  yet  to  add  con¬ 
cerning  the  right  training  of  children. 

12.  I  say  now,  that  children  are  to  be  won  to  follow 
liberal  studies  by  exhortations  and  rational  motives,  and 
on  no  account  to  be  forced  thereto  by  whipping  or  any 
other  contumelious  punishments.  I  will  not  urge  that 
such  usage  seems  to  be  more  agreeable  to  slaves  than  to 
ingenuous  children  ;  and  even  slaves,  when  thus  handled, 
are  dulled  and  discouraged  from  the  performance  of  their 
tasks,  partly  by  reason  of  the  smart  of  their  stripes,  and 
partly  because  of  the  disgrace  thereby  inflicted.  But 
praise  and  reproof  are  more  effectual  upon  free-born  chil¬ 
dren  than  any  such  disgraceful  handling ;  the  former  to 
incite  them  to  what  is  good,  and  the  latter  to  restrain  them 
from  that  which  is  evil.  But  we  must  use  reprehensions 
and  commendations  alternately,  and  of  various  kinds  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  occasion ;  so  that  when  they  grow  petulant, 
they  may  be  shamed  by  reprehension,  and  again,  when 


Preparation 
for  war. 


Use  exhor¬ 
tation  and 
not 

punishment 


Evil  of  over¬ 
training. 


Parent  must 
cooperate 
with  teacher. 


318  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

they  better  deserve  it,  they  may  be  encouraged  by  com¬ 
mendations.  Wherein  we  ought  to  imitate  nurses,  who, 
when  they  have  made  their  infants  cry,  stop  their  mouths 
with  the  nipple  to  quiet  them  again.  It  is  also  useful  not 
to  give  them  such  large  commendations  as  to  puff  them 
up  with  pride ;  for  this  is  the  ready  way  to  fill  them  with 
a  vain  conceit  of  themselves,  and  to  enfeeble  their  minds. 

13.  Moreover,  I  have  seen  some  parents  whose  too 
much  love  to  their  children  hath  occasioned,  in  truth,  their 
not  loving  them  at  all.  I  will  give  light  to  this  assertion 
by  an  example  to  those  who  ask  what  it  means.  It  is 
this :  while  they  are  over-hasty  to  advance  their  children 
in  all  sorts  of  learning  beyond  their  equals,  they  set  them 
too  hard  and  laborious  tasks,  whereby  they  fall  under  dis¬ 
couragement  ;  and  this,  with  other  inconveniences  accom¬ 
panying  it,  causeth  them  in  the  issue  to  be  ill  affected  to 
learning  itself.  For  as  plants  by  moderate  watering  are 
nourished,  but  with  over-much  moisture  are  glutted,  so  is 
the  spirit  improved  by  moderate  labors,  but  overwhelmed 
by  such  as  are  excessive.  We  ought  therefore  to  give  chil¬ 
dren  some  time  to  take  breath  from  their  constant  labors, 
considering  that  all  human  life  is  divided  betwixt  business 
and  relaxation.  To  which  purpose  it  is  that  we  are  in¬ 
clined  by  nature  not  only  to  wake,  but  to  sleep  also ;  that 
as  we  have  sometimes  wars,  so  likewise  at  other  times 
peace;  as  some  foul,  so  other  fair  days;  and,  as  we  have 
seasons  of  important  business,  so  also  the  vacation  times 
of  festivals.  And,  to  contract  all  in  a  word,  rest  is  the 
sauce  of  labor.  Nor  it  is  thus  in  living  creatures  only,  but 
in  things  inanimate  too.  For  even  in  bows  and  harps,  we 
loosen  their  strings,  that  we  may  bend  and  wind  them  up 
again.  Yea,  it  is  universally  seen  that,  as  the  body  is 
maintained  by  repletion  and  evacuation,  so  is  the  mind  by 
employment  and  relaxation. 

Those  parents,  moreover,  are  to  be  blamed  who,  when 
they  have  committed  their  sons  to  the  care  of  pedagogues  or 
schoolmasters,  never  see  or  hear  them  perform  their  tasks ; 
wherein  they  fail  much  of  their  duty.  For  they  ought,  ever 
and  anon,  after  the  intermission  of  some  days,  to  make  trial 
of  their  children’s  proficiency ;  and  not  intrust  their  hopes 
of  them  to  the  discretion  of  a  hireling.  For  even  that  sort 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education  319 

of  men  will  take  more  care  of  the  children,  when  they 
know  that  they  are  regularly  to  be  called  to  account.  And 
here  the  sayings  of  the  king’s  groom  is  very  applicable, 
that  nothing  made  the  horse  so  fat  as  the  king’s  eye. 

But  we  must  most  of  all  exercise  and  keep  in  constant 
employment  the  memory  of  children ;  for  that  is,  as  it 
were,  the  storehouse  of  all  learning.  Wherefore  the  my- 
thologists  have  made  Mnemosyne,  or  Memory,  the  mother 
of  the  Muses,  plainly  intimating  thereby  that  nothing  doth 
so  beget  or  nourish  learning  as  memory.  Wherefore  we 
must  employ  it  to  both  those  purposes,  whether  the  chil¬ 
dren  be  naturally  apt  or  backward  to  remember.  For  so 
shall  we  both  strengthen  it  in  those  to  whom  Nature  in 
this  respect  hath  been  bountiful,  and  supply  that  to  others 
wherein  she  hath  been  deficient.  And  as  the  former  sort 
of  boys  will  thereby  come  to  excel  others,  so  will  the  latter 
sort  excel  themselves.  For  that  of  Hesiod  was  well  said,  — 

Oft  little  add  to  little,  and  the  account 

Will  swell :  heapt  atoms  thus  produce  a  mount.1 

Neither,  therefore,  let  the  parents  be  ignorant  of  this, 
that  the  exercising  of  memory  in  the  schools  doth  not  only 
give  the  greatest  assistance  towards  the  attainment  of 
learning,  but  also  to  all  the  actions  of  life.  For  the  re¬ 
membrance  of  things  past  affords  us  examples  in  our  con¬ 
sults  about  things  to  come. 

14.  Children  ought  to  be  made  to  abstain  from  speak¬ 
ing  filthily,  seeing,  as  Democritus  said,  words  are  but  the 
shadows  of  actions.  They  are,  moreover,  to  be  instructed 
to  be  affable  and  courteous  in  discourse.  For  as  churlish 
manners  are  always  detestable,  so  children  may  be  kept 
from  being  odious  in  conversation,  if  they  will  not  be  per¬ 
tinaciously  bent  to  maintain  all  they  say  in  dispute.  For 
it  is  of  use  to  a  man  to  understand  not  only  how  to  over¬ 
come,  but  also  how  to  give  ground  when  to  conquer  would 
turn  to  his  disadvantage.  For  there  is  such  a  thing  some¬ 
times  as  a  Cadmean  victory ;  which  the  wise  Euripides 
attesteth,  when  he  saith,  — 

Where  two  discourse,  if  the  one’s  anger  rise, 

The  man  who  lets  the  contest  fall  is  wise.2 

1  Hesiod,  Works  and  Days ,  371.  2  Euripides,  Protesilaus ,  Frag.  656. 


Improve  the 
memory. 


Importance 

of 

moderation. 


320  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Add  we  now  to  these  things  some  others  of  which  chil¬ 
dren  ought  to  have  no  less,  yea,  rather  greater  care ;  to 
wit,  that  they  avoid  luxurious  living,  bridle  their  tongues, 
subdue  anger,  and  refrain  their  hands.  Of  how  great 
moment  each  of  these  counsels  is,  I  now  come  to  inquire ; 
and  we  may  best  judge  of  them  by  examples.  To  begin 
with  the  last :  some  men  there  have  been,  who,  by  open¬ 
ing  their  hands  to  take  what  they  ought  not,  have  lost  all 
the  honor  they  got  in  the  former  part  of  their  lives.  So 
Gylippus  the  Lacedaemonian,  for  unsewing  the  public 
money-bags,  was  condemned  to  banishment  from  Sparta. 
And  to  be  able  also  to  subdue  anger  is  the  part  of  a  wise 
man.  Such  a  one  was  Socrates ;  for  when  a  hectoring 
and  debauched  young  man  rudely  kicked  him,  so  that 
those  in  his  company,  being  sorely  offended,  were  ready 
to  run  after  him  and  call  him  to  account  for  it,  What,  said 
he  to  them,  if  an  ass  had  kicked  me,  would  you  think  it 
handsomely  done  to  kick  him  again  ?  And  yet  the  young 
man  himself  escaped  not  unpunished ;  for  when  all  per¬ 
sons  reproached  him  for  so  unworthy  an  act,  and  gave  him 
the  nickname  of  Aa/cTiaTrjs  or  the  kicker,  he  hanged  him¬ 
self.  The  same  Socrates,  —  when  Aristophanes,  publish¬ 
ing  his  play  which  he  called  the  Clouds,  therein  threw  all 
sorts  of  the  foulest  reproaches  upon  him,  and  a  friend  of 
his,  who  was  present  at  the  acting  of  it,  repeated  to  him 
what  was  there  said  in  the  same  comical  manner,  asking 
him  withal,  Does  not  this  offend  you,  Socrates  ?  — replied  : 
Not  at  all,  for  I  can  as  well  bear  with  a  fool  in  a  play  as 
at  a  great  feast.  And  something  of  the  same  nature  is 
reported  to  have  been  done  by  Archytas  of  Tarentum  and 
Plato.  Archytas,  when,  upon  his  return  from  the  war, 
wherein  he  had  been  a  general,  he  was  informed  that  his 
land  had  been  impaired  by  his  bailiffs  negligence,  sent  for 
him,  and  said  only  thus  to  him  when  he  came :  If  I  were 
not  very  angry  with  thee,  I  would  severely  correct  thee. 
And  Plato,  being  offended  with  a  gluttonous  and  de¬ 
bauched  servant,  called  to  him  Speusippus,  his  sister’s 
son,  and  said  unto  him  :  Go  beat  thou  this  fellow ;  for 
I  am  too  much  offended  with  him  to  do  it  myself. 

These  things,  you  will  perhaps  say,  are  very  difficult  to 
be  imitated.  I  confess  it ;  but  yet  we  must  endeavor  to 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education  321 

the  utmost  of  our  power,  by  setting  such  examples  be¬ 
fore  us,  to  repress  the  extravagancy  of  our  immoderate, 
furious  anger.  For  neither  are  we  able  to  rival  the  expe¬ 
rience  or  virtue  of  such  men  in  many  other  matters ;  but 
we  do,  nevertheless,  as  sacred  interpreters  of  divine  mys¬ 
teries  and  priests  of  wisdom,  strive  to  follow  these  examples, 
and,  as  it  were,  to  enrich  ourselves  with  what  we  can  nibble 
from  them. 

And  as  to  bridling  of  the  tongue,  concerning  which  also 
I  am  obliged  to  speak,  if  any  man  think  it  a  small  matter 
or  of  mean  concernment,  he  is  much  mistaken.  For  it  is 
a  point  of  wisdom  to  be  silent  when  occasion  requires,  and 
better  than  to  speak,  though  never  so  well.  And,  in  my 
judgment,  for  this  reason  the  ancients  instituted  mystical 
rites  of  initiation  in  religion,  that,  being  in  them  accustomed 
to  silence,  we  might  thence  transfer  the  fear  we  have  of 
the  Gods  to  the  fidelity  required  in  human  secrets.  Yea, 
indeed,  experience  shows  that  no  man  ever  repented  of 
having  kept  silence ;  but  many  that  they  have  not  done  so. 

And  a  man  may,  when  he  will,  easily  utter  what  he  hath 
by  silence  concealed ;  but  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  recall 
what  he  hath  once  spoken.  And,  moreover,  I  can  remem¬ 
ber  infinite  examples  that  have  been  told  me  of  those  that 
have  procured  great  damages  to  themselves  by  intemper¬ 
ance  of  the  tongue  ;  one  or  two  of  which  I  will  give,  omit¬ 
ting  the  rest. 

.  .  .  Besides  all  these  things,  we  are  to  accustom  chil-  Truthful- 
dren  to  speak  the  truth,  and  to  account  it,  as  indeed  it  is,  ness- 
a  matter  of  religion  for  them  to  do  so.  For  lying  is  a  ser¬ 
vile  quality,  deserving  the  hatred  of  all  mankind ;  yea, 
a  fault  for  which  we  ought  not  to  forgive  our  meanest 
servants. 

******* 

16.  ...  Thus  far  have  I  discoursed  concerning  the 
right  ordering  and  decent  carriage  of  children.  I  will 
now  pass  thence,  to  speak  somewhat  concerning  the  next 
age,  that  of  youth.  For  I  have  often  blamed  the  evil  cus-  Youthful 
tom  of  some,  who  commit  their  boys  in  childhood  to  peda-  errors  are 

j  *-  dangerous 

gogues  and  teachers,  and  then  suffer  the  impetuosity  of 
their  youth  to  range  without  restraint;  whereas  boys  of 
that  age  need  to  be  kept  under  a  stricter  guard  than  chil- 


322  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Rules  for 
conduct. 


dren.  For  who  does  not  know  that  the  errors  of  childhood 
are  small,  and  perfectly  capable  of  being  amended ;  such 
as  slighting  their  pedagogues,  or  disobedience  to  their 
teachers’  instructions.  But  when  they  begin  to  grow 
towards  maturity,  their  offences  are  oftentimes  very  great 
and  heinous.  .  .  .  Wherefore  it  is  expedient  that  such 
impetuous  heats  should  with  great  care  be  kept  under 
and  restrained.  For  the  ripeness  of  that  age  admits  no 
bounds  in  its  pleasures,  is  skittish,  and  needs  a  curb  to 
check  it ;  so  that  those  parents  who  do  not  hold  in  their 
sons  with  great  strength  about  that  time  find  to  their  sur¬ 
prise  that  they  are  giving  their  vicious  inclinations  full 
swing  in  the  pursuit  of  the  vilest  actions.  Wherefore  it 
is  a  duty  incumbent  upon  wise  parents,  in  that  age  espe¬ 
cially,  to  set  a  strict  watch  upon  them,  and  to  keep  them 
within  the  bounds  of  sobriety  by  instructions,  threatenings, 
entreaties,  counsels,  promises,  and  by  laying  before  them 
examples  of  those  men  (on  one  side)  who  by  immoderate 
love  of  pleasures  have  brought  themselves  into  great  mis¬ 
chief,  and  of  those  (on  the  other)  who  by  abstinence  in  the 
pursuit  of  them  have  purchased  to  themselves  very  great 
praise  and  glory.  For  these  two  things  (hope  of  honor, 
and  fear  of  punishment)  are,  in  a  sort,  the  first  elements 
of  virtue;  the  former  whereof  spurs  men  on  the  more 
eagerly  to  the  pursuit  of  honest  studies,  while  the  latter 
blunts  the  edge  of  their  inclinations  to  vicious  courses. 

1 7.  And  in  sum,  it  is  necessary  to  restrain  young  men 
from  the  conversation  of  debauched  persons,  lest  they  take 
infection  from  their  evil  examples.  This  was  taught  by 
Pythagoras  in  certain  enigmatical  sentences,  which  I  shall 
here  relate  and  expound,  as  being  greatly  useful  to  further 
virtuous  inclinations.  Such  are  these.  Taste  not  of  fish 
that  have  black  tails  ;  that  is  converse  not  with  men  that  are 
smutted  with  vicious  qualities.  Stride  not  over  the  beam 
of  the  scales  ;  wherein  he  teacheth  us  the  regard  we  ought 
to  have  for  justice,  so  as  not  to  go  beyond  its  measures. 
Sit  not  on  a  choenix ; 1  wherein  he  forbids  sloth,  and  re¬ 
quires  us  to  take  care  to  provide  ourselves  with  the  neces¬ 
saries  of  life.  Do  not  strike  hands  with  every  man ;  he 
means  we  ought  not  to  be  over  hasty  to  make  acquaintances 

1  A  Greek  measure;  approximately,  a  quart  cup. 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education  323 

or  friendships  with  others.  Wear  not  a  tight  ring ;  that  is, 
we  are  to  labor  after  a  free  and  independent  way  of  living, 
and  to  submit  to  no  fetters.  Stir  not  up  the  fire  with  a 
sword ;  signifying  that  we  ought  not  to  provoke  a  man 
more  when  he  is  angry  already  (since  this  is  a  most  un- 
seemingly  act),  but  we  should  rather  comply  with  him  while 
his  passion  is*in  its  heat.  Eat  not  thy  heart ;  which  for¬ 
bids  to  afflict  our  souls,  and  waste  them  with  vexatious 
cares.  Abstain  from  beans ;  that  is,  keep  out  of  public 
offices,  for  anciently  the  choice  of  the  officers  of  state  was 
made  by  beans.  Put  not  food  in  a  pot ;  wherein  he  declares 
that  elegant  discourse  ought  not  to  be  put  into  an  impure 
mind;  for  discourse  is  the  food  of  the  mind,  which  is  ren¬ 
dered  unclean  by  the  foulness  of  the  man  who  receives  it. 
When  men  are  arrived  at  the  goal,  they  should  not  turn 
back ;  that  is,  those  who  are  near  the  end  of  their  days, 
and  see  the  period  of  their  lives  approaching,  ought  to  en¬ 
tertain  it  contentedly,  and  not  to  be  grieved  at  it. 

But  to  return  from  this  digression  —  our  children,  as 
I  have  said,  are  to  be  debarred  the  company  of  all  evil 
men,  but  especially  flatterers.  For  I  would  still  affirm 
what  I  have  often  said  in  the  presence  of  divers  fathers, 
that  there  is  not  a  more  pestilent  sort  of  men  than  these, 
nor  any  that  more  certainly  and  speedily  hurry  youth  into 
precipices.  Yea,  they  utterly  ruin  both  fathers  and  sons, 
making  the  old  age  of  the  one  and  the  youth  of  the  other 
full  of  sorrow,  while  they  cover  the  hook  of  their  evil  coun¬ 
sels  with  the  unavoidable  bait  of  voluptuousness.  Parents, 
when  they  have  good  estates  to  leave  their  children,  exhort 
them  to  sobriety,  flatterers  to  drunkenness;  parents  exhort 
to  continence,  these  to  lasciviousness;  parents  to  good  hus¬ 
bandry,  these  to  prodigality ;  parents  to  industry,  these  to 
slothfulness.  And  they  usually  entertain  them  with  such 
discourses  as  these :  The  whole  life  of  man  is  but  a  point 
of  time;  let  us  enjoy  it  therefore  while  it  lasts,  and  not 
spend  it  to  no  purpose.  Why  should  you  so  much  regard 
the  displeasure  of  your  father  ?  —  an  old  doting  fool,  with 
one  foot  already  in  the  grave,  and  ’tis  to  be  hoped  it  will  not 
be  long  ere  we  carry  him  thither  altogether.  And  some  of 
them  there  are  who  procure  young  men  foul  harlots,  yea, 
prostitute  wives  to  them ;  and  they  even  make  a  prey  of 


Danger  of 
flatterers. 


324  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Danger  of 
over¬ 
severity. 


those  things  which  the  careful  fathers  have  provided  for 
the  sustenance  of  their  old  age.  A  cursed  tribe !  True 
friendship’s  hypocrites,  they  have  no  knowledge  of  plain 
dealing  and  frank  speech.  They  flatter  the  rich,  and  de¬ 
spise  the  poor ;  and  they  seduce  the  young,  as  by  a  musi¬ 
cal  charm.  When  those  who  feed  them  begin  to  laugh,  then 
they  grin  and  show  their  teeth.  They  are  mere  counter¬ 
feits,  bastard  pretenders  to  humanity,  living  at  the  nod  and 
beck  of  the  rich ;  free  by  birth,  yet  slaves  by  choice,  who 
always  think  themselves  abused  when  they  are  not  so,  be¬ 
cause  they  are  not  supported  in  idleness  at  others’  cost. 
Wherefore,  if  fathers  have  any  care  for  the  good  breeding 
of  their  children,  they  ought  to  drive  such  foul  beasts  as 
these  out  of  doors.  They  ought  also  to  keep  them  from 
the  companionship  of  vicious  school-fellows,  for  these  are 
able  to  corrupt  the  most  ingenuous  dispositions. 

18.  These  counsels  which  I  have  now  given  are  of  great 
worth  and  importance ;  what  I  now  have  to  add  touches 
certain  allowances  that  are  to  be  made  to  human  nature. 
Again  therefore  I  would  not  have  fathers  of  an  over-rigid 
and  harsh  temper,  but  so  mild  as  to  forgive  some  slips  of 
•  youth,  remembering  that  they  themselves  were  once  young. 
But  as  physicians  are  wont  to  mix  their  bitter  medicines 
with  sweet  syrups,  to  make  what  is  pleasant  a  vehicle  for 
what  is  wholesome,  so  should  fathers  temper  the  keenness 
of  their  reproofs  with  lenity.  They  may  occasionally  loosen 
the  reins,  and  allow  their  children  to  take  some  liberties 
they  are  inclined  to,  and  again,  when  it  is  fit,  manage  them 
with  a  straighter  bridle.  But  chiefly  should  they  bear  their 
errors  without  passion,  if  it  may  be ;  and  if  they  chance  to 
be  heated  more  than  ordinary,  they  ought  not  to  suffer  the 
flame  to  burn  long.  For  it  is  better  that  a  father’s  anger 
be  hasty  than  severe ;  because  the  heaviness  of  his  wrath, 
joined  with  unplacableness,  is  no  small  argument  of  hatred 
towards  the  child.  It  is  good  also  not  to  discover  the  no¬ 
tice  they  take  of  divers  faults,  and  to  transfer  to  such  cases 
that  dimness  of  sight  and  hardness  of  hearing  that  are  wont 
to  accompany  old  age ;  so  as  sometimes  not  to  hear  what 
they  hear,  nor  to  see  what  they  see,  of  their  children’s  mis¬ 
carriages.  We  use  to  bear  with  some  failings  in  our  friends, 
and  it  is  no  wonder  if  we  do  the  like  to  our  children,  es- 


Cosmopolitan  Greek  Education  325 

pecially  when  we  sometimes  overlook  drunkenness  in  our 
very  servants.  Thou  hast  at  times  been  too  straight-handed 
to  thy  son ;  make  him  at  other  whiles  a  larger  allowance. 
Thou  hast,  it  may  be,  been  too  angry  with  him  ;  pardon 
him  the  next  fault  to  make  him  amends.  He  hath  made 
use  of  a  servant’s  wit  to  circumvent  thee  in  something;  re¬ 
strain  thy  anger.  He  hath  made  bold  to  take  a  yoke  of 
oxen  out  of  the  pasture,  or  he  hath  come  home  smelling  of 
his  yesterday’s  drink ;  take  no  notice  of  it ;  and  if  of  oint¬ 
ments  too,  say  nothing.  For  by  this  means  the  wild  colt 
sometimes  is  made  more  tame.  ...  I  will  add  a  few  words 
more,  and  put  an  end  to  these  advices.  The  chiefest  thing 
that  fathers  are  to  look  to  is,  that  they  themselves  become 
effectual  examples  to  their  children,  by  doing  all  those 
things  which  belong  to  them  and  avoiding  all  vicious  prac¬ 
tices,  that  in  their  lives,  as  in  a  glass,  their  children  may 
see  enough  to  give  them  an  aversion  to  all  ill  words  and 
actions.  For  those  that  chide  children  for  such  faults  as 
they  themselves  fall  into  unconsciously  accuse  themselves, 
under  their  children’s  names.  And  if  they  are  altogether 
vicious  in  their  own  lives,  they  lose  the  right  of  reprehend¬ 
ing  their  very  servants,  and  much  more  do  they  forfeit  it 
towards  their  sons.  Yea,  what  is  more  than  that,  they  make 
themselves  even  counsellors  and  instructors  to  them  in 
wickedness.  For  where  old  men  are  impudent,  there  of 
necessity  must  the  young  men  be  so  too.  Wherefore  we  are 
to  apply  our  minds  to  all  such  practices  as  may  conduce  to 
the  good  breeding  of  our  children.  And  here  we  may  take 
example  from  Eurydice  of  Hierapolis,  who,  although  she 
was  an  Illyrian,  and  so  thrice  a  barbarian,  yet  applied  her¬ 
self  to  learning  when  she  was  well  advanced  in  years,  that 
she  might  teach  her  children.  Her  love  towards  her  chil¬ 
dren  appears  evidently  in  this  Epigram  of  hers,  which  she 
dedicated  to  the  Muses  :  — 

Eurydice  to  the  Muses  here  doth  raise 

This  monument,  her  honest  love  to  praise  ; 

Who  her  grown  sons  that  she  might  scholars  breed, 

Then  well  in  years,  herself  first  learned  to  read. 

And  thus  have  I  finished  the  precepts  which  I  designed 
to  give  concerning  this  subject.  But  that  they  should  all 


Teaching  by 
example. 


326  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

be  followed  by  any  one  reader  is  rather,  I  fear,  to  be 
wished  than  hoped.  And  to  follow  the  greater  part  of 
them,  though  it  may  not  be  impossible  to  human  nature, 
yet  will  need  a  concurrence  of  more  than  ordinary  dili¬ 
gence  joined  with  good  fortune. 


PART  II 


ROMAN  EDUCATION 

I.  EARLY  ROMAN  EDUCATION 

Periods  of  Roman  Education.  —  Roman  education  falls 
into  two  general  periods  of  clearly  defined  characteristics, 
though  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two  is  not 
distinct.  The  first  of  these  periods  is  from  the  earliest 
days  to  the  time  when  Grecian  ideas  of  life,  culture,  and 
enjoyment  came  in  and  Rome  became  as  cosmopolitan  in  its 
ideas  and  manners  as  it  had  already  become  in  arms  and 
government.  The  second  period  dates  from  this  change, 
approximately  the  middle  of  the  second  century  b.c.,  when 
Macedonia  was  conquered  and  Greece  became  a  Roman 
province,  and  includes  the  latter  years  of  the  Republic 
and  all  of  the  imperial  period.  This  one  contrast  between 
the  old  Roman  and  the  Graeco-Roman  period  gives  that 
which  is  fundamental  to  the  understanding  of  the  history 
of  Roman  education.  Each  of  these  general  periods  may 
be  again  divided  into  sub-periods,  which  will  be  referred 
to  as  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  periods,  while  the 
term  “  general  ”  will  be  used  to  indicate  the  more  compre¬ 
hensive  divisions.  The  historic  evolution  of  Roman  educa¬ 
tion  can  be  better  understood  by  grouping  the  sources  under 
these  four  periods.  The  first  of  these  includes  the  legen¬ 
dary  and  the  early  historic  period  to  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century  b.c.  The  second  extends  to  the  beginning 

327 


328  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

of  the  Graeco-Roman  period,  146  b.c.  The  third  dates  to 
the  rather  indefinite  time  in  the  second  and  third  Christian 
centuries  when  Roman  society  gave  general  evidence  of 
that  moral  and  cultural  decline  that  previously  had  become 
characteristic  of  the  imperial  court.  The  fourth  includes 
the  centuries  of  decadence  to  the  termination  of  the  im¬ 
perial  office  in  the  West.  So  far  as  there  is  anything  dis¬ 
tinctive  about  the  education  of  this  last  period  that  is  not 
also  true  of  the  later  portion  of  the  third  period,  it  centres 
about  the  opposition  between  the  Christian  religion  and 
the  pagan  culture.  Since  this  opposition  is  more  closely 
connected  with  mediaeval  than  with  classical  education, 
the  source  material  is  not  included  here ;  none  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  selections  date  from  later  than  the  middle  of  the 
second  Christian  century.  The  general  features  of  the 
education  of  the  later  period,  so  far  as  they  are  Roman, 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  second  Christian  century. 

Sources  of  Information  for  the  Old  Roman  Period.  —  What 
the  laws  of  Moses  were  to  early  Hebrew  education,  the 
laws  of  Lycurgus  to  Spartan  education,  the  laws  of  Solon 
and  to  a  certain  extent  the  Homeric  poems  to  the  early 
Athenian  education,  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  were 
to  the  early  education  of  the  Romans.  Not  only  do  these 
express  the  ideals  of  Roman  education,  but  to  a  large  ex¬ 
tent  they  form  the  subject-matter  thereof.  Their  influence 
is  dominant  from  the  time  of  their  formation,  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century  b.c.  to  the  opening  of  the  first  century 
b.c.,  by  which  time  the  Homeric  poems  and  the  early  Latin 
literature  had  largely  usurped  their  place.  The  fragments 
of  these  tables,  preserved  and  given  here,  form  the  most 
important  single  source  for  this  early  period. 

A  second  source,  though  not  presented  here,  is  the  bio- 


Early  Roman  Education  329 

graphical  and  traditional  material  relating  to  the  early 
Roman  heroes.  This  material  performed  the  same  ser¬ 
vice  for  the  Romans  as  did  the  Homeric  poems  for  the 
Greeks.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  practical  nature  of 
Roman  life  and  education  that  these  stories,  whether 
truth  or  fiction,  should  relate  to  actual  men,  not  to  gods  or 
demigods.  Such  ideals  could  be  imitated,  and  so  appealed 
to  the  conscience  as  well  as  to  the  imagination  of  the  child. 
The  Romans,  not  being  a  literary  people,  did  not,  like  the 
Greeks,  put  these  accounts  of  their  early  life  into  literary 
form ;  at  least,  not  during  this  period.  Hence  it  is  not 
possible  to  draw  upon  them  directly  as  sources ;  yet,  since 
references  to  the  use  of  such  material  as  the  basis  of  their 
educational  work  are  abundant,  many  such  are  to  be  found 
in  the  selections  here  given.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that 
Plutarch  has  given  in  permanent  form  much  of  this  mate¬ 
rial,  and  that  his  Lives  represents,  both  in  form  and  sub¬ 
stance,  one  phase  of  the  education  of  this  extended  period. 
No  place  has,  however,  been  accorded  this  material  in  this 
collection,  for  it  is  not  very  direct  evidence.  Plutarch’s 
ideas  on  education,  representing  the  best  cosmopolitan 
views  of  the  Graeco-Roman  period  have  already  been  given. 
A  third  source  is  found  in  references  to  works  of  this 
period  no  longer  extant.  The  most  important  of  such 
works  is  the  lost  treatise,  De  liberis  educandis ,  by  Cato  the 
Censor  (b.  234  b.c.,  d.  149  b.c.),  which,  according  to  Quin¬ 
tilian,  is  the  earliest  Roman  work  on  education.  A  further 
source,  represented  in  this  collection,  is  found  in  extracts 
from  authors  of  a  later  period,  presenting  the  ideals, 
methods,  or  subject-matter  of  education  of  these  earlier 
days.  Such  references,  though  brief,  are  numerous,  and 
are  here  represented  by  several  selections. 


33°  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

The  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  —  These  laws  were 
adopted  in  451  and  450  b.c.  To  a  large  extent  they  are  a 
formulation  of  previous  usage,  but  also  contain  some  new 
elements.  These  latter  were,  to  some  extent,  now  thought 
to  be  slight,  provisions  borrowed  from  Grecian  states  relat¬ 
ing  to  the  curbing  of  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  patricians. 
The  tradition  runs  that  in  454  a  commission  of  three  men 
had  been  sent  abroad  to  study  the  laws  of  Athens  and 
other  Greek  cities.  But  for  the  most  part  in  principle  and 
in  detail  the  laws  are  indigenous,  and  offer  marked  con¬ 
trasts  with  Grecian  laws.  In  the  period  preceding  the 
adoption  of  the  tables,  there  had  been  great  dissatisfaction 
upon  the  part  of  the  plebs.  The  consequent  agitation 
led,  in  the  two  years  mentioned,  to  the  substitution  of  the 
power  of  ten  men,  the  decemviri ,  for  that  of  all  the  exist¬ 
ing  magistrates.  The  ten  tables  are  the  work  of  the  de¬ 
cemvirs  of  451 ;  the  two  supplementary  tables  are  the  work 
of  the  decemvirs  of  450.  The  decemvirs  of  the  latter 
year  usurped  the  power  for  two  succeeding  years,  but  by 
revolution  the  old  form  of  government  was  reinstituted 
upon  the  basis  of  the  new  code.  These  tables  aimed  at 
two  results :  first,  the  defining  and  publication  of  the  laws 
in  order  to  prevent  usurpation  and  abuse  upon  the  part  of 
the  patrician  magistrates ;  and,  second,  the  placing  of  the 
plebeians  and  patricians  upon  an  equality.  The  latter  re¬ 
sult  was  not  secured,  but  the  definite  and  public  form,  now 
first  given  to  Roman  law,  remained  the  basis  of  Roman 
polity  until  the  adoption  of  the  Justinian  code  almost  one 
thousand  years  later  (about  430  a.d.).  The  laws  were, 
however,  gradually  overlaid  by  the  praetorian  decisions 
which  adapted  the  laws  to  existing  needs.  In  time  these 
edicts  came  to  be  of  greater  importance  than  the  laws 
themselves. 


Early  Roman  Education 


33i 


Publicity  and  permanency  were  first  given  the  laws  by 
posting  them  in  the  Forum,  inscribed  on  bronze  tablets, 
and  by  requiring  that  all  Roman  boys  should  learn  them 
by  heart.  In  this  way  they  became  the  basis  of  Roman 
education,  so  far  as  it  was  literary,  during  all  of  the  two 
earlier  educational  periods.  This  requirement,  however, 
fell  into  decay  by  the  opening  of  the  first  century  before 
Christ,  at  which  time  the  Grecian  education  had  become 
dominant.  For  several  centuries,  first  in  the  homes,  then 
in  the  schools  (when  they  were  established),  the  Laws  of 
the  Twelve  Tables  were  the  basis  of  the  instruction  in 
reading,  writing,  and  literary  work.  Not  only  did  they 
form  the  most  important  part  of  the  subject-matter  of  early 
literary  education,  but  they  also  expressed  the  ideals  of  life 
that  dominated  this  education. 

Neither  the  order  nor  the  exact  wording  of  the  Laws 
of  the  Twelve  Tables  is  preserved;  but  enough  has  been 
left  in  the  form  of  fragments,  which  preserve  the  exact 
wording,  and  in  the  form  of  numerous  references  through¬ 
out  Latin  literature,  which  preserve  the  spirit,  to  enable 
scholars  to  restore  the  tables.  Nor  is  there  any  certainty 
as  to  their  completeness.  The  reproduction  of  these  frag¬ 
ments  here  given  is  taken  from  Prichard  and  Nasmith’s 
translation  of  Ortolan’s  Histoire  de  la  Legislation  Romaine 
et  Generalisation  du  Droit ,  perhaps  the  best  product  of 
modern  scholarship  on  this  subject. 

Ideals  of  Roman  Education.  —  While  these  fragments  of 
the  Twelve  Tables  do  not  give  full  expression  to  the  ideals 
which  controlled  early  Roman  life  and  education,  they 
give  practical  form  to  many  of  them.  The  fact  most 
clearly  indicated  by  the  laws  is  that  even  at  this  early 
date  the  Romans  were  a  people  prone  to  litigation ;  that 


332  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

is,  to  the  settlement  of  conflicts  of  personal  rights  accord¬ 
ing  to  well-defined  principles  of  justice.  To  the  Roman 
the  rights  of  the  individual  as  expressed  in  property  rela¬ 
tions  were  more  important  than  to  any  other  early  people. 
Hence  there  was  an  emphasis  laid  on,  and  a  place  found 
for,  individuality,  which,  while  limited  and  well-defined, 
was  more  secure  than  with  the  Greeks  or  other  early 
peoples.  This  emphasis  on  the  individual  was  of  an  ex¬ 
tremely  practical  sort,  and  revealed  itself  chiefly  in  eco¬ 
nomic  affairs.  In  this  respect  the  Tables  give  expression 
to  the  Roman  ideal  prudentia ,  the  prudence  of  the  practi¬ 
cal  man  in  the  everyday  affairs  of  life,  as  well  as  to  a 
further  practical  ideal,  honestas ,  fair  dealing  in  these  eco¬ 
nomic  relationships.  Though  a  litigious  people,  all  con¬ 
flicts  of  personal  rights  were  to  be  settled  by  appeal  to 
general  principles,  —  all  were  subordinate  to  the  Roman 
idea  of  justice.  This  was  not  the  Platonic  or  Grecian 
idea  of  justice,  or  of  virtue  as  the  resultant  of  the  union 
of  all  minor  virtues.  To  the  Roman  it  meant  the  regula¬ 
tion  of  private  rights  by  the  still  more  general  obligations 
to  the  state,  or,  more  immediately,  the  settlement  of  con¬ 
flicting  claims  of  individuals  according  to  custom  and  the 
tradition  of  their  ancestors.  In  either  case  it  is  an  ex¬ 
tremely  practical  virtue  as  opposed  to  the  idealism  of  the 
Greeks.  This  supremacy  of  the  state  and  the  complete 
subordination  of  the  individual  to  the  welfare  of  the  state 
is  expressed  in  another  ideal,  virtus ,  that  is,  courage,  forti¬ 
tude.  While  this  finds  expression  in  the  laws  only  inci¬ 
dentally,  it  is  clearly  revealed  in  .every  other  evidence 
relating  to  early  Roman  life.  The  educational  expression 
of  this  ideal  is  seen  in  the  use  of  the  lives  of  Roman 
heroes,  and  of  incidents  in  Roman  history,  in  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  the  character  of  each  succeeding  generation. 


Early  Roman  Education 


333 


While  the  laws  are  very  largely  devoted  to  the  regulation 
of  personal  and  property  rights,  Tables  IV.  and  V.  indicate 
the  importance  of  two  other  ideals.  The  first  is  pietas ,  or 
obedience, — the  performance  of  duties  to  the  gods,  to 
ancestors,  and  to  parents  and  fellow-men,  —  or  as  expressed 
positively  in  the  Laws,  the  absolute  supremacy  of  the 
patria  potestas.  This  ideal  again  finds  expression  in  Table 
X.  on  Sacred  Laws.  These  Tables,  especially  Table  X. 
also  evidence  another  ideal,  largely  religious  but  also  affect¬ 
ing  every  aspect  of  Roman  life,  that  is,  pudor ,  modesty, 
or  reverence.  To  these  ideals  must  be  added  two  others,  of 
which  we  find  circumstantial,  if  not  direct,  evidence  in  the 
Twelve  Tables,  as  in  every  other  aspect  of  Roman  history. 
One  is  constantia ,  or  character,  manliness,  firmness,  which 
with  virtus  gives  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  Roman 
soldier  ;  the  other  is  gravitas ,  —  or  earnestness,  seriousness, 
sedateness.  To  the  possession  of  those  two  ideals  are 
attributable  certain  aspects  of  the  Roman  character  that 
are  wanting  in  that  of  the  Greek,  and  that  are  of  especial 
importance  during  the  early  general  period  when  education 
centred  so  largely  in  the  home. 

The  Subject-matter,  Method,  and  Organization  of  early 
Roman  education  are  not  indicated  in  the  one  source 
available,  save  so  far  as  the  Tables  themselves  formed  the 
subject-matter.  The  importance  of  these  laws  from  this 
point  of  view  is  borne  out  by  a  brief  selection  appended,  — 
the  forty-fourth  paragraph  of  Cicero’s  De  Oratore.  This 
was  written  in  the  year  55  b.c.  and  indicates  the  esteem  in 
which  the  laws  were  still  held  from  the  educational  point 
of  view,  even  though  they  had  ceased  to  hold  first  place. 
Not  only  were  these  laws  committed  to  memory,  but  they 
were  understood  and  mastered  as  a  source  of  practical 


334  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

guidance  for  after  life.  In  fact,  with  the  Romans  the  sub¬ 
ject-matter  of  education  bore  directly  upon  life  as  it  has 
done  with  few  people.  The  importance  of  this  study  from 
the  intellectual  point  of  view  must  also  be  considered. 
While  literature,  science,  or  language  made  up  no  part  of 
the  subject-matter  of  education  during  the  early  period 
(for  the  use  of  the  Greek  had  not  become  common  until 
the  middle  of  the  third  century  b.c.),  the  study  of  the 
Twelve  Tables  formed  no  mean  intellectual  discipline. 
Both  from  the  disciplinary  and  the  practical  point  of  view 
it  would  compare  favorably  with  other  educational  schemes 
having  as  their  nucleus  language,  literature,  or  science.  In 
addition  to  this  it  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  no  people, 
either  before  or  since,  has  made  such  use  of  its  own  history 
in  education.  History,  including  biography  and  the  study  of 
Roman  law,  comprised  the  subject-matter  of  early  Roman 
education.  Further  evidence  on  this  point  will  be  found 
in  succeeding  selections.  In  the  sources  contrasting  the 
early  with  the  later  Roman  education,  as  well  as  in  those 
bearing  directly  upon  the  later  period,  the  method  and  the 
organization  of  education  in  this  early  period  will  be  more 
accurately  indicated.  Discussions  of  these  points  will  be 
given  connection  with  those  periods. 

Fragments  of  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables 

TABLE  i 

The  Summons  before  the  Magistrate. 

I.  “  If  you  summon  a  man  before  a  magistrate  and  he 
refuses  to  go,  take  witnesses  and  arrest  him.”  1 

1  Where  the  exact  rendering  of  the  law  is  possible,  quotation  marks  are 
used ;  where  the  substance  is  restored  from  various  sources,  quotation  marks 
are  omitted. 


Early  Roma7i  Education  335 

II.  “  If  he  attempt  evasion  or  flight,  lay  hands  upon 
him.” 

III.  “  If  he  be  prevented  by  sickness  or  old  age,  let 

him  who  summons  him  before  the  magistrate 
provide  the  means  of  transport ;  but  not  a 
covered  vehicle,  unless  as  an  act  of  benevo¬ 
lence.” 

IV.  “  Fora  rich  man,  a  rich  man  only  can  be  vindex.1 

In  the  case  of  a  proletarius ,  any  one  may  be 
vindex.” 

V.  “  If  the  parties  agree,  that  is  to  say,  come  to 
terms,  let  the  suit  be  stopped  and  the  matter 
arranged.” 

VI.  “  If  no  arrangement  is  made  between  the  parties, 
let  the  cause  be  entered  before  midday,  either 
in  the  comitium  or  in  the  forum,  in  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  both  parties.” 

VII.  “  After  midday  let  the  magistrate  grant  judgment 
to  the  party  present.” 

VIII.  “  No  step  shall  be  taken  in  an  action  after  sunset.” 

IX.  ... 


TABLE  II 

Judicial  Proceedings. 

I.  The  provisions  of  the  Twelve  Tables  upon  the 
amount  to  be  deposited,  called  sacramentum , 
by  the  litigants  respectively. 

II.  “.  .  .  A  serious  illness  .  .  .  an  engagement  with 
a  peregrinus  2  .  .  .  should  either  of  these  cir¬ 
cumstances  exist  in  connection  with  the  judge, 
the  arbiter,  or  one  of  the  litigants,  the  cause 
must  be  adjourned.” 

III.  “  Any  one  who  wants  a  witness  must  summon  him 
by  calling  upon  him  in  a  loud  voice,  stating 
that  he  will  require  his  attendance  on  the  third 
day  of  the  market.”  3 


1  A  kind  of  bail  or  surety. 

2  A  stranger  or  foreigner  to  the  city. 

3  The  markets  took  place  every  ninth  day;  the  third  day  of  the  market 
would  be  the  twenty-seventh  day. 


336  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

IV.  The  provision  which  permitted  the  compounding 
of  a  theft. 


TABLE  III 

Execution  following  Confession  or  Judgment. 

I.  “  In  case  of  debt  either  upon  confession  or  judg¬ 
ment,  the  debtor  shall  have  thirty  days’  grace.” 

II.  “That  term  having  expired,  the  plaintiff  shall 
have  the  manus  injectio  1  to  bring  the  debtor 
before  the  magistrate.” 

III.  “If  the  debt  is  not  paid,  or  surety  provided,  the 

creditor  shall  take  the  debtor,  put  him  into 
chains  or  into  the  stocks,  the  weight  of  the 
chains  not  to  exceed  fifteen  pounds,  but  less 
at  the  creditor’s  will.” 

IV.  “  The  debtor  shall  be  at  liberty  to  live  as  he  thinks 

fit,  provided  it  be  at  his  own  expense.  In  the 
event  of  his  being  unable  to  provide  his  own 
nourishment,  the  creditor  in  whose  custody  he 
is  shall  supply  him  with  at  least  one  pound  of 
bread  daily.” 

V.  Provision  relating  to  — 

i°.  The  right  of  compromise. 

2°.  The  debtor’s  captivity,  in  default  of  com¬ 
promise  within  sixty  days,  and  of  his  pro¬ 
duction  during  this  interval  in  the  comitium 
on  three  successive  market  days,  and  the 
public  declaration  of  the  amount  in  which  he 
was  condemned. 

VI.  Provision  allowing  the  creditor  after  the  third 
market  day,  he  not  being  paid,  either  to  put 
his  debtor  to  death  or  to  sell  him  to  any 
stranger  resident  beyond  the  Tiber ;  and 
which,  in  the  case  of  there  being  several 
creditors,  enacts  as  follows  :  “  After  the 

third  market  day,  his  body  may  be  divided. 
Any  one  taking  more  than  his  just  share  shall 
be  held  guiltless.” 


1  A  species  of  execution  of  final  process. 


Early  Roman  Education 


337 


TABLE  IV 

The  Rights  of  the  Father. 

I.  Provision  as  to  the  immediate  destruction  of 
monstrous  or  deformed  offspring. 

II.  Provision  relating  to  the  control  of  the  father 
over  his  children,  the  right  existing  during 
their  whole  life  to  imprison,  scourge,  keep  to 
rustic  labour  in  chains,  to  sell  or  slay,  even 
though  they  may  be  in  the  enjoyment  of  high 
state  offices. 

III.  “  Three  consecutive  sales  of  the  son  by  the  father 

releases  the  former  from  the  patria  potestasd 

IV.  Provision  relating  to  the  duration  of  gestation : 

no  child  born  more  than  ten  months  after  the 
decease  of  his  reputed  father  to  be  held 
legitimate. 


table  v 

Inheritance  and  Tutelage. 

I.  Provision  relating  to  the  perpetual  tutelage  of 
women.  Vestals  are  free  both  from  their 
tutelage  and  from  th patria  potestas. 

II.  Provision  prohibiting  the  usucapion 1  of  res  man- 
cipi  2  belonging  to  females  under  the  tutelage 1 2  3 
of  their  agnates,4  except  in  the  case  where 
they  have  been  delivered  by  the  woman  her¬ 
self  with  the  authority  of  her  tutor. 

III.  “The  testament  of  the  father  shall  be  law  as  to 

all  provisions  concerning  his  property  and 
the  tutelage  thereof.” 

IV.  “  In  the  event  of  his  death  intestate  and  without 

suus  hares,  the  nearest  agnate  shall  succeed.” 

1  Acquisition  by  use  or  by  possession  for  a  certain  period. 

2  Things  requiring  more  than  mere  delivery  to  constitute  transfer  of  owner¬ 
ship. 

3  Protection  exercised  over  those  who  did  not  have  the  capacity  required 
by  civil  law  for  the  accomplishment  of  legal  acts. 

4  Blood  relatives  on  the  father’s  side. 


33s  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

V.  “In  default  of  agnates,  the  gentiles  1  shall  suc¬ 
ceed.” 

VI.  In  the  event  of  no  tutor  being  specified  in  the 
will,  the  agnates  are  the  legitimate  tutors. 

VII.  “The  custody  of  an  idiot  and  of  his  property,  in 
case  there  is  no  curator  (custos),  belongs  to 
the  agnates ;  in  default  of  agnates  to  his 
gentiles.” 

VIII.  A  provision  by  which  the  inheritance  of  an  en¬ 
franchised  dying  without  hceres  suits  was 
transferred  to  his  patron. 

IX.  The  inheritance  is  divided  as  of  right  among  the 
heirs. 

X.  Provision  from  which  is  derived  the  actio  familice 
erciscundce ,  that  is,  the  action  which  must 
be  taken  to  enforce  the  division  of  an  inheri¬ 
tance. 

XI.  The  slave  enfranchised  by  will,  upon  condition  of 
his  giving  a  certain  sum  to  the  heir,  can,  in 
the  event  of  his  being  alienated  by  the  heir, 
secure  his  freedom  by  the  payment  of  this 
sum  to  the  alienee. 


TABLE  VI 

_  / 

Dominion  and  Possession. 

I.  “The  words  pronounced  in  the  ceremonies  of  the 
nexurn  2  and  the  mancipium  shall  be  law.” 

II.  Provision  enforcing  double  payment  as  penalty 
for  denying  the  declaration  of  the  nexum  or 
mancipium. 

III.  “Possession  for  the  period  of  two  years  in  the 

case  of  land,  or  of  one  year  in  connection 
with  other  things,  vests  the  property.” 

IV.  Provision  relating  to  the  acquisition  of  the  mari¬ 

tal  power  over  the  woman  by  the  fact  of  pos¬ 
session  of  one  year,  with  the  faculty  given  to 

1  Belonging  to  the  same  clan  or  gens. 

2  The  general  term  for  alienation  or  transfer  of  property,  especially  per  as  ei 
libram  —  by  the  bronze  piece  and  the  balance. 


Early  Roman  Education 


339 


the  woman  of  preventing  this  effect  of  pos¬ 
session  by  absenting  herself  for  three  nights 
consecutively  in  each  year  from  the  house  of 
her  husband. 

V.  “No  possession  by  an  alien,  however  long,  can 
vest  in  him  the  property  of  a  citizen.” 

VI.  In  the  case  of  the  manuum  consertio}  let  the 
magistrate  give  the  provisional  possession  to 
whomsoever  he  may  think  fit.  In  the  case, 
however,  of  a  claim  to  liberty,  the  magistrate 
shall  always  give  the  provisional  possession 
in  favour  of  liberty. 

VII.  “  Timber  attached  to  a  building  or  the  support  of 
a  vine  shall  not  be  removed.” 

VIII.  But  an  action  to  recover  the  double  value  lies 
against  the  user  of  the  property  of  another. 

IX.  “  If  the  material  becomes  detached,  and  so  long 
as  it  remains  so  .  .  .  (the  owner  can  recover 
by  vindicatio 1  2 *).” 

X.  The  property  in  a  thing  sold  and  delivered  does 
not  pass  to  the  purchaser  till  payment. 

XI.  Provision  confirming  the  cessioz  before  the  magis¬ 
trate,  as  likewise  the  mancipatio. 


TABLE  VII 

The  Law  Concerning  Real  Property. 

I.  Two  feet  and  a  half  at  least  must  be  left  between 
adjoining  edifices  for  the  purposes  of  proper 
ventilation. 

II.  Provisions  concerning  plantations  and  construc¬ 
tions  or  excavations  upon  adjoining  plots  of 
ground. 

III.  “A  garden  ...  a  small  inheritance  ...  a 
barn.”  4 

1  A  feigned  judicial  combat  for  trying  the  right  to  property  in  a  given 
thing. 

2  A  legal  process  of  claiming  possession. 

8  Alienation  or  surrendering  of  property. 

4  Not  restored. 


34°  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Educatio7i 

IV.  A  space  of  five  feet  must  be  left  between  adjoin¬ 

ing  fields  for  the  purposes  of  access  and  the 
turning  of  the  plough.  This  space  cannot  be 
acquired  by  usucapio. 

V.  In  the  event  of  there  being  any  dispute  about 

the  boundaries,  the  magistrate  is  to  give  three 
arbiters  to  the  parties,  who  shall  settle  the 
matter. 

VI.  The  breadth  of  a  road  is  to  be  eight  feet ;  at 
the  end,  where  it  turns,  sixteen  feet.  If  the 
road  is  impassable,  the  owner  of  a  right  of 
way  may  cross  wherever  he  pleases. 

VII.  The  proprietor  whose  property  is  threatened  with 
damage  arising  from  artificial  works  for  the 
collection  of  rain-water,  or  from  an  aqueduct, 
has  a  right  to  demand  a  guarantee  against 
this  injury. 

VIII.  The  branches  of  a  tree  overhanging  adjoining 
property  must  be  pruned  all  round  up  to 
fifteen  feet  from  the  ground. 

IX.  A  proprietor  may  go  on  to  adjoining  land  to  pick 
up  the  fruit  that  has  fallen  from  his  tree. 


TABLE  VIII 


On  Torts. 

I.  Capital  punishment  is  decreed  against  libellers 
and  public  defamers. 

II.  “  Retaliation  against  him  who  breaks  the  limb  of 
another  and  does  not  offer  compensation.” 

III.  For  the  fracture  of  the  bone  (of  the  tooth)  of  a 

freeman,  the  penalty  is  300  asses ; 1  in  the 
case  of  a  slave,  1 50. 

IV.  “  For  any  injury  whatsoever  committed  upon 

another  the  penalty  shall  be  25  asses.” 

V.  ”...  For  damage  unjustly  caused  .  .  .  (but  if 
by  accident)  reparation.” 


1  A  small  copper  coin,  worth  in  the  earlier  period  about  i6f  cents;  depreci¬ 
ated  until  by  the  time  of  the  Second  Punic  War  it  was  worth  about  two-thirds 
of  a  cent. 


Early  Roman  Education 


341 


VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 


X. 


XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 


XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 


For  damage  caused  by  a  quadruped,  reparation 
or  the  forfeiture  of  the  animal. 

An  action  shall  lie  against  him  who  depastures 
his  flock  upon  a  neighbour’s  land. 

“  He  who  by  enchantment  shall  blight  the  crops 
of  another,  or  attract  them  from  one  field  to 
another  ...” 

He  who  during  the  night  furtively  either  cuts  or 
depastures  a  neighbour’s  crops,  if  of  the  age 
of  puberty,  shall  be  devoted  to  Ceres  and  put 
to  death ;  if  under  that  age,  he  shall  be 
scourged  at  the  discretion  of  the  magistrate 
and  condemned  in  the  penalty  of  double  the 
damage  done. 

The  incendiary  of  a  house  or  of  a  haystack  near 
a  house,  if  acting  intentionally  and  of  sound 
mind,  shall  be  bound,  scourged,  and  put  to 
death  by  fire.  If  by  negligence,  he  shall 
repair  the  damage  ;  or,  if  too  poor,  shall 
be  chastised  moderately. 

A  penalty  of  25  asses  is  to  be  inflicted  upon  any 
one  who  without  right  has  felled  the  trees  of 
another. 

“Any  one  committing  a  robbery  by  night  may  be 
lawfully  killed.” 

A  robber  surprised  during  the  day  must  not  be 
put  to  death,  unless  he  attempts  to  defend 
himself  with  arms. 

A  thief  taken  in  the  act,  if  a  free  man,  shall  be 
scourged  and  made  over  by  addictio  to  the 
person  robbed  ;  if  a  slave,  shall  be  scourged 
and  thrown  from  the  Tarpeian  rock  ;  but  those 
under  the  age  of  puberty  shall,  at  the  discre¬ 
tion  of  the  magistrate,  be  scourged  and  con¬ 
demned  to  repair  the  damage. 


Provision  prohibiting  the  acquisition  by  usucapio , 
that  is  to  say,  by  possession  of  stolen  property. 
Interest  upon  money  lent  must  not  exceed  an 
ounce.  That  is  to  say,  one  twelfth  part  of 


342  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


the  principal  per  annum,  which  is  eight  and 
a  third  per  cent  per  annum,  calculating 
according  to  the  solar  year  of  twelve  months, 
according  to  the  calendar  of  Numa.  The 
penalty  for  exceeding  this  interest  is  the 
quadruple. 

XIX.  For  fraud  in  bailment  a  double  penalty. 

XX.  Provision  giving  all  citizens  the  right  of  action 
to  remove  suspected  tutors,  and  imposing  a 
double  penalty  for  the  abstracted  property 
of  the  pupil. 

XXI.  The  patron  who  shall  commit  a  fraud  upon 
his  client  shall  be  devoted  to  the  gods.” 

XXII.  “  He  who  has  been  a  witness  or  acted  as  scale- 
bearer  and  refuses  to  give  testimony  shall 
be  accounted  infamous,  and  incapable  of 
giving  or  receiving  testimony.” 

XXIII.  Provision  ordering  false  witnesses  to  be  thrown 
from  the  Tarpeian  rock. 

XXIV.  Capital  punishment  for  homicide. 

XXV.  “  (Capital  punishment  decreed  against)  any  one 
who  practises  enchantments  or  uses  poison¬ 
ous  drugs.” 

XXVI.  Provision  against  seditious  gatherings  by  night 

the  city,  awarding  capital  punishment. 

XXVII.  Sodciles ,  or  members  of  the  same  college  or 
corporation,  are  at  liberty  to  make  what 
rules  binding  upon  themselves  they  may 
think  fit,  provided  that  they  do  not  contra¬ 
vene  the  law. 


TABLE  ix 

Public  Law. 

I.  Provision  prohibiting  the  passing  of  any  law 
concerning  a  private  individual. 

II.  The  great  comitia,  that  is  to  say,  the  comitia  by 
centuries,  have  alone  the  right  to  enact  laws 
inflicting  capital  punishment  upon  a  citizen, 
that  is  to  say,  which  could  deprive  him  of 
life,  liberty,  or  citizenship. 


Early  Roman  Education  343 

III.  The  penalty  of  death  is  awarded  to  the  judge  or 

arbitrator  appointed  by  the  magistrate  who 
accepts  a  bribe. 

IV.  Provision  relating  to  the  question  in  the  case  of 

homicide  ;  and  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  peo¬ 
ple  in  the  case  of  any  penal  sentence. 

V.  The  penalty  of  death  decreed  against  any  one 
who  should  excite  the  enemy  against  the 
Roman  people ;  or  who  should  deliver  a  citi¬ 
zen  to  the  enemy. 


table  x 


Sacred  Law. 

I.  “The  dead  must  not  be  buried  nor  burned  within 
the  city.” 

II.  “  Do  no  more  than  this  .  .  .  The  wood  of  the 
funeral  pile  shall  not  be  smoothed.” 

III.  Restrictions  against  sumptuous  funerals ;  the 

dead  are  not  to  be  buried  nor  burned  in 
more  than  three  robes;  nor  in  more  than 
three  fillets  of  purple ;  nor  shall  the  fu¬ 
neral  be  attended  by  more  than  ten  flute 
players. 

IV.  “Women  shall  not  be  allowed  to  tear  their  hair 

nor  make  immoderate  wailings.” 

V.  “  The  bones  of  the  deceased  shall  not  be  col¬ 
lected  for  the  purpose  of  giving  him  a  subse¬ 
quent  funeral  (except  in  the  case  of  death  in 
battle,  or  in  a  foreign  country).” 

VI.  Provision  prohibiting  the  embalming  the  bodies 
of  slaves,  funeral  banquets,  expensive  liba¬ 
tions,  coronal  garlands,  and  the  erection  of 
incense  altars. 

VII.  “  But  if  the  deceased  has  either  personally  or 
by  his  slaves  or  horses  obtained  any  public 
trophy,  he  shall  be  entitled  to  the  honour  it 
confers.” 

VIII.  Prohibition  against  more  than  one  funeral,  or 
more  than  one  funeral  ceremony,  for  the 
same  deceased. 


344  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

IX.  “  Gold  must  not  be  buried  with  the  dead ;  but  if 
the  teeth  are  fastened  with  gold,  this  may  be 
either  buried  or  burned.” 

X.  No  funeral  pile  or  sepulchre  shall  be  erected 
within  sixty  feet  of  another  man’s  house,  ex¬ 
cept  with  his  consent. 

XI.  Neither  a  sepulchre  nor  its  vestibule  can  be  ac¬ 
quired  by  usucapio. 


TABLE  XI 

Supplement  to  the  First  Five  Tables. 

I.  Prohibiting  marriage  between  patricians  and 
plebeians. 


TABLE  XII 

Supplement  to  the  Last  Five  Tables. 

I.  Provision  establishing  the  pignoris  capio 1  against 
the  debtor  for  the  payment  of  the  purchase- 
money  of  a  victim,  or  the  hire  of  a  beast  of 
burden  when  the  hire  has  been  expressly 
made  in  order  that  the  sum  paid  should  be 
devoted  to  purpose  of  sacrifice. 

II.  “  If  a  slave  has  committed  a  theft  or  any  other 
injury  .  .  .  the  direct  action  does  not  lie 
against  the  master,  but  the  actio  noxalis 2 
does.” 

III.  “  If  any  one  wrongfully  acquires  the  interim  pos¬ 

session  of  a  thing,  the  magistrate  shall  appoint 
three  arbitrators  to  determine  the  question ; 
and  if  they  decide  against  him,  he  shall  be 
mulcted  in  a  sum  equal  to  double  the  profits.” 

IV.  It  is  forbidden  to  consecrate  anything  which  is 

the  subject  of  a  suit,  and  a  double  penalty  is 
inflicted  for  doing  so. 

V.  Abrogates  all  previous  and  contradictory  enact¬ 
ments. 


1  The  seizure  of  the  security. 


2  An  action  on  account  of  an  injury. 


Early  Roman  Education 
From  the  De  Oratore  of  Cicero 


345 


BOOK  I.,  CHAPTER  XLIV 

Though  all  the  world  exclaim  against  me,  I  will  say 
what  I  think  :  that  single  little  book  of  the  Twelve  Tables, 
if  any  one  look  at  the  fountains  and  sources  of  laws,  seems 
to  me,  assuredly,  to  surpass  the  libraries  of  all  the  philoso¬ 
phers,  both  in  weight  of  authority,  and  in  plenitude  of 
utility.  And  if  our  country  has  our  love,  as  it  ought  to 
have  in  the  highest  degree,  —  our  country,  I  say,  of  which 
the  force  and  natural  attraction  is  so  strong,  that  one  of 
the  wisest  of  mankind  preferred  his  Ithaca,  fixed,  like  a 
little  nest,  among  the  roughest  of  rocks,  to  immortality  it¬ 
self,  —  with  what  affection  ought  we  to  be  warmed  toward 
such  a  country  as  ours,  which,  preeminently  above  all  other 
countries,  is  the  seat  of  virtue,  empire,  and  dignity  ?  Its 
spirit,  customs,  and  discipline  ought  to  be  our  first  objects 
of  study,  both  because  our  country  is  the  parent  of  us  all, 
and  because  as  much  wisdom  must  be  thought  to  have 
been  employed  in  framing  such  laws,  as  in  establishing  so 
vast  and  powerful  an  empire.  You  will  receive  also  this 
pleasure  and  delight  from  the  study  of  the  law,  that  you 
will  then  most  readily  comprehend  how  far  our  ancestors 
excelled  other  nations  in  wisdom,  if  you  compare  our  laws 
with  those  of  their  Lycurgus,  Draco,  and  Solon.  It  is 
indeed  incredible  how  undigested  and  almost  ridiculous  is 
all  civil  law,  except  our  own;  on  which  subject  I  am  accus¬ 
tomed  to  say  much  in  my  daily  conversation,  when  I  am 
praising  the  wisdom  of  our  countrymen  above  that  of  all 
other  men,  and  especially  of  the  Greeks.  For  these  rea¬ 
sons  have  I  declared,  Scaevola,  that  the  knowledge  of  the 
civil  law  is  indispensable  to  those  who  would  become 
accomplished  orators. 


Importance 
of  the  Twelve 
Tables  in  the 
education  of 
the  later 
period. 


II.  THE  SECOND  PERIOD  OF  EARLY  ROMAN 

EDUCATION 


The  Period.  —  The  second  period  of  early  Roman  educa¬ 
tion  covers  the  century  and  a  half  previous  to  the  conquest 
of  Greece  (300-146  b.c.).  This  is  the  period  during 
which  Rome  grew  from  a  small  local  power  into  a  world 
dominion,  including  as  it  does  the  Italian,  Punic,  and  Mace¬ 
donian  wars.  One  result  of  this  long  warfare  was  to  bring 
Rome  into  intimate  contact  with  the  Greeks  in  Italy,  Sicily, 
and  Greece.  The  educational  characteristic  of  the  period 
is  the  institutionalizing  of  education  and  the  gradual  growth 
of  the  Greek  influence.  At  the  opening  of  the  period  Rome 
could  not  be  said  to  have  schools  at  all.  Education  was 
centred  in  the  family,  and  was  largely  moral,  social,  and 
military  in  character.  It  was  distinctly  a  training  process, 
for  no  instruction  save  that  connected  with  the  Laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables  was  considered  necessary.  At  the  close  of 
the  period  schools  were  well  established  ;  they  presented 
the  appearance  of  a  system  corresponding  to  our  elemen¬ 
tary,  secondary,  and  higher  education  ;  and  it  had  become 
the  approved  thing  for  the  Roman  boy  to  receive  his  edu¬ 
cation  from  them,  though  there  were  many  who  yet  clung 
to  the  old  education,  and  though  even  after  this  time 
there  were  governmental  efforts  to  check  the  growth  of 
Greek  ideas  and  customs  in  education. 

The  Sources.  —  The  two  selections  given  narrate  the 
introduction  and  growth  of  these  secondary  and  higher 
educational  institutions.  They  are  the  introductory  por- 

346 


Second  Period  of  Early  Roman  Education  347 

tions  of  the  two  remaining  fragments  of  the  works  of  Sue¬ 
tonius  on  the  Lives  of  Eminent  Grammarians  and  on  the 
Lives  of  Eminent  Rhetoricians .  Gaius  Suetonius  Tran- 
quillus  was  an  historian,  born  about  79  a.d.,  and  there¬ 
fore  a  contemporary  of  the  younger  Pliny  and  Tacitus. 
He  was  in  high  favor  with  the  emperors  of  that  period, 
until  deprived  of  his  office  by  Hadrian  in  12 1  a.d.  In 
this  time  of  disfavor  he  wrote  his  historical  works,  which 
are  chiefly  of  a  biographical  character.  The  two  selec¬ 
tions,  introductory  to  numerous  biographical  accounts  of 
distinguished  teachers  of  the  period  of  the  Hellenized 
Roman  education,  form  a  brief  sketch  of  this  earlier  period. 

The  Introduction  of  Schools  and  the  Process  of  Helleniza- 
tion.  —  At  the  beginning  of  this  period  there  are  evidences 
of  the  existence  of  elementary  schools.  Such  a  school, 
the  Indus ,  afforded  instruction  in  reading  and  writing,  per¬ 
haps  also  in  calculation.  Instead  of  such  instruction  being 
imparted  in  each  home  by  the  parent  or  family  slave,  it  was 
now  given  for  several  families  by  a  slave  or,  perhaps,  by 
a  freeman.  Our  detailed  knowledge  of  these  schools  is 
drawn  from  the  succeeding  period.  These  schools  are 
referred  to  by  Suetonius  as  the  schools  of  the  literators  or 
grammatists  (On  Grammarians ,  Ch.  IV.). 

Early  in  this  period  a  higher  type,  the  school  of  the 
grammaticus,  was  introduced  by  the  Greeks.  The  earliest 
of  these  grammar  schools  was  that  established  by  Livius 
Andronicus  some  time  about  the  middle  of  that  century. 
At  the  same  time  he  translated  the  Odyssey  into  Latin, 
which  thereafter  became  the  basis  of  grammar  school 
work.  Ennius  was  brought  to  Rome  204  b.c.,  and  after¬ 
ward  gave  instruction  in  Greek  and  Latin  grammar.  Plu¬ 
tarch  refers  to  Spurius  Carvilius,  who  established  a  school 


348  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

240  b.c.  as  the  first  to  take  fixed  fees.  Carvilius  was  twice 
consul,  first  in  234,  —  a  notable  rise  for  a  schoolmaster. 
By  the  middle  of  the  second  century  b.c.  there  was  quite 
a  body  of  this  early  Latin  literature,  either  translated  from, 
or  written  in  imitation  of,  Grecian  works,  much  of  which 
became  the  basis  of  grammar  school  work.  It  is  about 
this  time  (157  b.c.)  that  Crates  established  his  school,  which 
is  referred  to  by  Suetonius  as  affording  the  first  definite 
study  of  grammar.  In  the  same  chapter  Suetonius  refers 
to  nine  other  grammarians  that  taught  at  about  this  time  or 
a  little  later.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  literary  instruc¬ 
tion  after  the  Grecian  fashion  was  well  established  at  Rome 
in  grammar  schools  by  the  close  of  the  old  Roman  period. 

By  this  time  a  third  type  of  school  had  appeared,  —  the 
school  of  the  rhetor  or  rhetorician.  As  Suetonius  suggests 
in  his  Lives  of  Grammarians  (Ch.  IV.),  the  offices  of  the 
grammaticus  and  of  the  rhetor  were  not  at  first  distinct. 
The  grammarians  taught  rhetoric  as  well :  secondary  edu¬ 
cation  and  higher  education  were  not  differentiated.  Both 
were  of  a  literary  character,  both  were  Grecian  imitations. 
They  furnished  the  instruction  and  training  in  declamation 
and  debate.  Suetonius  states  that  the  early  rhetors  alter¬ 
nated  their  work  in  rhetoric,  either  on  successive  days  or  on 
mornings  and  afternoons,  with  that  in  grammar.  Certain 
it  is  that  by  16 1  b.c.  such  schools  have  become  numerous 
enough  to  be  considered  a  menace  to  Roman  institutions 
and  the  preservation  of  the  old  Roman  character,  for  in 
that  year  the  Senate  approved  the  proposition  of  the  praetor 
that  the  rhetoricians  along  with  the  philosophers  be  ex¬ 
pelled  from  Rome.  Of  course  such  methods  were  ineffec¬ 
tive  against  tendencies  so  manifestly  in  accord  with  the 
whole  movement  of  the  times.  Later  developments  along 


Second  Period  of  Early  Roman  Education  349 

this  line  fall  into  the  third  special  period;  but  it  seems 
that  by  seventy  years  later  the  Greek  rhetoricians  had 
been  supplemented  by  a  new  type,  the  Latin  rhetoricians, 
who  were  considered  to  be  still  more  pernicious.  The 
charges  against  these  schools  sound  very  much  like  the 
charges  entered  against  the  schools  of  the  Sophists  when 
they  were  first  introduced  at  Athens ;  and,  in  fact,  they 
indicate  a  change  very  similar  in  character  to  that  indi¬ 
cated  in  the  Clouds.  The  close  of  the  first  general  period 
leaves  Roman  society  fully  equipped  with  a  frame-work 
of  educational  institutions,  to  be  extended  and  amplified  in 
the  succeeding  period.  The  method  and  content  of  their 
work  can  be  best  understood  when  that  more  detailed  evi¬ 
dence  is  presented. 

Selections  from  the  Lives  of  Eminent  Grammarians ,  by 

Suetonius 

I.  The  science  of  grammar  was  in  ancient  times  far 
from  being  in  vogue  at  Rome ;  indeed,  it  was  of  little  use 
in  a  rude  state  of  society,  when  the  people  were  engaged 
in  constant  wars,  and  had  not  much  time  to  bestow  on  the 
cultivation  of  the  liberal  arts.  At  the  outset,  its  preten¬ 
sions  were  very  slender,  for  the  earliest  men  of  learning, 
who  were  both  poets  and  orators,  may  be  considered  as 
half-Greek:  I  speak  of  Livius1  and  Ennius,2  who  are 

1  Livius  Andronicus  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Roman  epic  and 
dramatic  poetry.  He  was  by  birth  a  Greek  of  southern  Italy.  Upon  the 
conquest  of  that  region  by  the  Romans,  he  was  brought  as  a  slave  to  Rome  in 
272  B.c.  He  was  given  his  liberty  and  became  a  teacher  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages.  During  this  time  he  translated  the  Odyssey  into  Latin. 
This  became  the  chief  text-book  of  the  Roman  schools  for  centuries,  in  time 
supplanting  the  Twelve  Tables.  In  240  b.c.  he  produced  the  first  Roman 
drama,  modelled  after  the  Grecian  dramas. 

2  Ennius  was  born  in  Calabria  in  239  B.C.  He  was  brought  from  Sardinia 
to  Rome  by  Porcius  Cato  in  204  b.c.  Here  he  became  a  teacher  of  the  Greek 
language,  also  translating  Greek  plays  for  the  Roman  stage. 


350  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

acknowledged  to  have  taught  both  languages  as  well  at 
Rome  as  in  foreign  parts.  But  they  only  translated  from 
the  Greek,  and  if  they  composed  anything  of  their  own 
in  Latin,  it  was  only  from  what  they  had  before  read. 
For  although  there  are  those  who  say  that  this  Ennius 
published  two  books,  one  on  “  Letters  and  Syllables,”  and 
the  other  on  “  Metres,”  Lucius  Cotta  has  satisfactorily 
proved  that  they  are  not  the  works  of  the  poet  Ennius, 
but  of  another  writer  of  the  same  name,1  to  whom  also  the 
treatise  on  the  “  Rules  of  Augury  ”  is  attributed. 

II.  Crates2  of  Mallos,3  then,  was,  in  our  opinion,  the 
first  who  introduced  the  study  of  grammar  at  Rome.  He 
was  cotemporary  with  Aristarchus,4  and  having  been  sent 
by  king  Attalus5  as  envoy  to  the  senate  in  the  interval 
between  the  second  and  third  Punic  wars,6  soon  after  the 
death  of  Ennius,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  an  open 
sewer  in  the  Palatine  quarter  of  the  city,  and  broke  his 
leg.  After  which,  during  the  whole  period  of  his  embassy 
and  convalescence,  he  gave  frequent  lectures,  taking  much 
pains  to  instruct  his  hearers,  and  he  has  left  us  an  example 
well  worthy  of  imitation.  It  was  so  far  followed,  that 
poems  hitherto  little  known,  the  works  either  of  deceased 
friends  or  other  approved  writers,  were  brought  to  light, 
and  being  read  and  commented  on,  were  explained  to 
others.  Thus,  Caius  Octavius  Lampadio  edited  the  Punic 
War  of  Naevius,7  which  having  been  written  in  one  volume 
without  any  break  in  the  manuscript,  he  divided  into  seven 
books.  After  that,  Quintus  Vargonteius  undertook  the 
Annals  of  Ennius,  which  he  read  on  certain  fixed  days 
to  crowded  audiences.  So  Laelius  Archelaus,  and  Vectius 
Philocomus,  read  and  commented  on  the  Satires  of  their 
friend  Lucilius,8  which  Lenaeus  Pompeius,  a  freedman, 

1  This  is  all  that  is  known  of  this  writer. 

2  Founded  a  grammar  school  in  Pergamus,  came  to  Rome  as  above  narrated 
in  157  b.c. 

3  In  Cilicia  in  Asia  Minor. 

4  A  celebrated  Grecian  grammarian,  one  of  the  greatest  critics  of  antiquity, 
especially  of  the  Homeric  poems. 

5  Of  Pergamus.  An  ally  of  the  Romans.  6  149-146  B.C. 

7  A  Roman  epic  and  dramatic  poet,  born  about  270  B.C. 

8  The  creator  of  Roman  satire,  born  148  B.c.,  died  109. 


Second  Period  of  Early  Roman  Education  351 

tells  us  he  studied  under  Archelaus ;  and  Valerius  Cato, 
under  Philocomus.  Two  others  also  taught  and  promoted 
grammar  in  various  branches,  namely,  Lucius  Ailius  Lanu- 
vinus,  the  son-in-law  of  Quintus  Ailius,  and  Servius  Clau¬ 
dius,  both  of  whom  were  Roman  knights,  and  men  who 
rendered  great  services  both  to  learning  and  the  republic. 

******* 

IV.  The  appellation  of  grammarian  was  borrowed  from 
the  Greeks ;  but  at  first,  the  Latins  called  such  persons 
literati.  Cornelius  Nepos,1  also,  in  his  book,  where  he 
draws  a  distinction  between  a  literate  and  a  philologist, 
says  that  in  common  phrase,  those  are  properly  called 
literati  who  are  skilled  in  speaking  or  writing  with  care 
or  accuracy,  and  those  more  especially  deserve  the  name 
who  translated  the  poets,  and  were  called  grammarians  by 
the  Greeks.  It  appears  that  they  were  named  literators 
by  Messala  Corvinus,  in  one  of  his  letters,  when  he  says, 
“that  it  does  not  refer  to  Furius  Bibaculus,  nor  even  to 
Sigida,  nor  to  Cato,  the  literator ,”  meaning,  doubtless,  that 
Valerius  Cato2  was  both  a  poet  and  an  eminent  gram¬ 
marian.  Some  there  are  who  draw  a  distinction  between 
a  literati  and  a  literator ,  as  the  Greeks  do  between  a  gram¬ 
marian  and  a  grammatist,  applying  the  former  term  to  men 
of  real  erudition,  the  latter  to  those  whose  pretensions  to 
learning  are  moderate ;  and  this  opinion  Orbilius  supports 
by  examples.  For  he  says  that  in  old  times,  when  a 
company  of  slaves  was  offered  for  sale  by  any  person,  it 
was  not  customary,  without  good  reason,  to  describe  either 
of  them  in  the  catalogue  as  a  literate,  but  only  as  a  literator, 
meaning  that  he  was  not  a  proficient  in  letters,  but  had 
a  smattering  of  knowledge. 

The  early  grammarians  taught  rhetoric  also,  and  we  have 
many  of  their  treatises  which  include  both  sciences;  whence 
it  arose,  I  think,  that  in  later  times,  although  the  two  pro¬ 
fessions  had  then  become  distinct,  the  old  custom  was  re¬ 
tained,  or  the  grammarians  introduced  into  their  teaching 
some  of  the  elements  required  for  public  speaking,  such  as 
the  problem,  the  periphrasis,  the  choice  of  words,  descrip- 

1  A  Roman  historian,  born  ioo  b.c. 

2  A  celebrated  grammarian,  of  the  time  of  the  Civil  Wars. 


352  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

tion  of  character,  and  the  like ;  in  order  that  they  might 
not  transfer  their  pupils  to  the  rhetoricians  no  better  than 
ill-taught  boys.  But  I  perceive  that  these  lessons  are  now 
given  up  in  some  cases,  on  account  of  the  want  of  applica¬ 
tion,  or  the  tender  years,  of  the  scholar,  for  I  do  not  believe 
that  it  arises  from  any  dislike  in  the  master.  I  recollect 
that  when  I  was  a  boy  it  was  the  custom  of  one  of  these, 
whose  name  was  Princeps,  to  take  alternate  days  for  de¬ 
claiming  and  disputing ;  and  sometimes  he  would  lecture 
in  the  morning,  and  declaim  in  the  afternoon,  when  he  had 
his  pulpit  removed.  I  heard,  also,  that  even  within  the 
memories  of  our  own  fathers,  some  of  the  pupils  of  the 
grammarians  passed  directly  from  the  schools  to  the  courts, 
and  at  once  took  a  high  place  in  the  ranks  of  the  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  advocates.  The  professors  at  that  time  were, 
indeed,  men  of  great  eminence,  of  some  of  whom  I  may 
be  able  to  give  an  account  in  the  following  chapters. 

******* 


Selections  from  the  Lives  of  Eminent  Rhetoricians ,  by 

Suetonius 

\ 

I.  Rhetoric,  also,  as  well  as  Grammar,  was  not  intro¬ 
duced  amongst  us  till  a  late  period,  and  with  still  more  dif¬ 
ficulty,  inasmuch  as  we  find  that,  at  times,  the  practice  of 
it  was  even  prohibited.  In  order  to  leave  no  doubt  of  this, 
I  will  subjoin  an  ancient  decree  of  the  senate,  as  well  as 
an  edict  of  the  censors :  —  “  In  the  co7isulship 1  of  Cains 
Fannius  Strabo ,  and  Marcus  Valerius  Messala  :  the  praetor 
Marcus  Pomponius  moved  the  senate,  that  an  act  be  passed 
respecting  Philosophers  and  Rhetoricians.  In  this  matter, 
they  have  decreed  as  follows :  ‘  It  shall  be  lawful  for 
M.  Pomponius,  the  praetor,  to  take  such  measures,  and 
make  such  provisions,  as  the  good  of  the  Republic,  and 
the  duty  of  his  office,  require,  that  no  Philosophers  or 
Rhetoricians  be  suffered  at  Rome/ 

“After  some  interval,  the  censor2  Cnaeus  Domitius  JEno- 
barbus  and  Lucius  Lucinius  Crassus  issued  the  following 
edict  upon  the  same  subject:  ‘It  is  reported  to  us  that 

1  592  a.u.c.;  161  b.c.  2  92  B.C. 


Second  Period  of  Early  Roman  Education  353 

certain  persons  have  instituted  a  new  kind  of  discipline; 
that  our  youth  resort  to  their  schools ;  that  they  have 
assumed  the  title  of  Latin  Rhetoricians ;  and  that  young 
men  waste  their  time  there  for  whole  days  together.  Our 
ancestors  have  ordained  what  instruction  it  is  fitting  their 
children  should  receive,  and  what  schools  they  should 
attend.  These  novelties,  contrary  to  the  customs  and 
instructions  of  our  ancestors,  we  neither  approve,  nor  do 
they  appear  to  us  good.  Wherefore  it  appears  to  be  our 
duty  that  we  should  notify  our  judgment  both  to  those  who 
keep  such  schools,  and  those  who  are  in  the  practice  of 
frequenting  them,  that  they  meet  our  disapprobation.’  ” 

However,  by  slow  degrees,  rhetoric  manifested  itself  to  be 
a  useful  and  honourable  study,  and  many  persons  devoted 
themselves  to  it  both,  as  a  means  of  defence  and  of  acquir¬ 
ing  reputation.  Cicero  declaimed  in  Greek  until  his  prae- 
torship,  but  afterwards,  as  he  grew  older,  in  Latin  also ; 
and  even  in  the  consulship 1  of  Hirtius  and  Pansa,  whom 
he  calls  “his  great  and  noble  disciples.”  Some  historians 
state  that  Cneius  Pompey  2  resumed  the  practice  of  declaim¬ 
ing  even  during  the  civil  war,  in  order  to  be  better  pre¬ 
pared  to  argue  against  Caius  Curio,  a  young  man  of  great 
talents,  to  whom  the  defence  of  Caesar  was  entrusted. 
They  say,  likewise,  that  it  was  not  forgotten  by  Mark 
Antony,  nor  by  Augustus,  even  during  the  war  of  Modena. 
Nero  also  declaimed  even  after  he  became  emperor,  in  the 
first  year  of  his  reign,  which  he  had  done  before  in  public 
but  twice.  Many  speeches  of  orators  were  also  published. 
In  consequence,  public  favour  was  so  much  attracted  to  the 
study  of  rhetoric,  that  a  vast  number  of  professors  and 
learned  men  devoted  themselves  to  it ;  and  it  flourished  to 
such  a  degree,  that  some  of  them  raised  themselves  by  it 
to  the  rank  of  senators  and  the  highest  offices. 

But  the  same  mode  of  teaching  was  not  adopted  by  all, 
nor,  indeed,  did  individuals  always  confine  themselves  to 
the  same  system,  but  each  varied  his  plan  of  teaching  ac¬ 
cording  to  circumstances.  For  they  were  accustomed,  in 
stating  their  argument  with  the  utmost  clearness,  to  use 
figures  and  apologies,  to  put  cases,  as  circumstances  re¬ 
quired,  and  to  relate  facts,  sometimes  briefly  and  succinctly, 

1  43  B.C.  2  With  Caesar  and  Crassus  formed  the  first  triumvirate. 


354  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

and,  at  other  times,  more  at  large  and  with  greater  feeling. 
Nor  did  they  omit,  on  occasion,  to  resort  to  translations  from 
the  Greek,  and  to  expatiate  in  the  praise,  or  to  launch  their 
censures  on  the  faults,  of  illustrious  men.  They  also  dealt 
with  matters  connected  with  every-day  life,  pointing  out 
such  as  are  useful  and  necessary,  and  such  as  are  hurtful 
and  needless.  They  had  occasion  often  to  support  the 
authority  of  fabulous  accounts,  and  to  detract  from  that  of 
historical  narratives,  which  sort  the  Greeks  call  “  Proposi¬ 
tions,"  “Refutations"  and  “Corroborations,"  until  by  a 
gradual  process  they  have  exhausted  these  topics,  and 
arrive  at  the  gist  of  the  argument. 

Among  the  ancients,  subjects  of  controversy  were  drawn 
either  from  history,  as  indeed  some  are  even  now,  or  from 
actual  facts,  of  recent  occurrence.  It  was,  therefore,  the 
custom  to  state  them  precisely,  with  details  of  the  names 
of  places.  We  certainly  so  find  them  collected  and  pub¬ 
lished,  and  it  may  be  well  to  give  one  or  two  of  them  liter¬ 
ally,  by  way  of  example : 

“  A  company  of  young  men  from  the  city,  having  made 
an  excursion  to  Ostia  in  the  summer  season,  and  going 
down  to  the  beach,  fell  in  with  some  fishermen  who  were 
casting  their  nets  in  the  sea.  Having  bargained  with  them 
for  the  haul,  whatever  it  might  turn  out  to  be,  for  a  certain 
sum,  they  paid  down  the  money.  They  waited  a  long  time 
while  the  nets  were  being  drawn,  and  when  at  last  they 
were  dragged  on  shore,  there  was  no  fish  in  them,  but  some 
gold  sewn  up  in  a  basket.  The  buyers  claim  the  haul  as 
theirs,  the  fishermen  assert  that  it  belongs  to  them." 

Again.*  “Some  dealers  having  to  land  from  a  ship  at 
Brundusium  a  cargo  of  slaves,  among  which  there  was  a 
handsome  boy  of  great  value,  they,  in  order  to  deceive  the 
collectors  of  the  customs,  smuggled  him  ashore  in  the  dress 
of  a  freeborn  youth,  with  the  bullum  1  hung  about  his  neck. 
The  fraud  easily  escaped  detection.  They  proceed  to  Rome ; 
the  affair  becomes  the  subject  of  judicial  inquiry;  it  is  al¬ 
leged  that  the  boy  was  entitled  to  his  freedom,  because  his 
master  had  voluntarily  treated  him  as  free." 

1  A  circular  piece  of  metal,  or  leather,  worn  by  Roman  children,  suspended 
from  the  neck.  It  was  laid  aside  at  adolescence  as  a  sign  of  manhood. 


III.  CONTRAST  BETWEEN  EARLIER  AND 
LATER  PERIODS  OF  ROMAN  EDUCATION 


The  Periods.  —  As  became  a  practical,  sturdy,  severe, 
and  reverential  people,  with  respect  for  tradition  and  a 
genius  for  originating  and  preserving  institutions,  the 
change  in  educational  ideas  and  practices  came  very 
much  more  gradually  with  the  Romans  than  with  the 
Greeks.  The  contrast  here  offered  is  essentially  that 
between  the  third  period  (the  last  century  of  the  Republic 
and  the  first  two  centuries  of  the  Empire)  and  the  first 
and  second  periods.  While  in  the  second  period  schools 
had  become  common  and  Grecian  educational  ideas  and 
practices  were  being  steadily  introduced,  education  for 
the  typical  Roman  was  still  essentially  a  home  process, 
and  even  so  far  as  it  had  become  institutionalized  was  not 
yet  literary.  The  first  essentially  literary  school  was  that 
of  Spurius  Carvilius,  opened  in  260  b.c.  Accordingly 
to  Plutarch,  he  was  the  first  to  take  fixed  fees  for  his 
instruction.  Elementary  schools,  however,  undoubtedly 
existed  before  this  time.  Less  than  a  generation  later, 
Livius  Andronicus,  the  founder  of  Roman  epic  and  dra¬ 
matic  poetry,  latinized  the  Odyssey ,  which  soon  shared 
with  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  the  first  place  in 
Roman  schools.  Not  until  the  middle  of  the  second  cen¬ 
tury  b.c.  does  education  cease  to  be  essentially  Roman. 
The  conquest  of  Greece  led  to  the  free  introduction  and 
imitation  of  Grecian  ideas,  and  soon  thereafter  Rome 

355 


356  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

becomes,  on  the  intellectual  side,  thoroughly  Hellenized. 
In  this  latter  connection,  a  decree  of  the  Senate  passed  in 
161  b.c.  may  be  taken  as  the  epochal  mark.  This  decree 
called  for  the  expulsion  of  the  philosophers  and  rhetori¬ 
cians  from  Rome.  The  account  of  the  decree  as  given 
by  Suetonius  has  already  been  presented.  Its  provisions 
were  non-effective ;  its  significance  is  rather  as  an  indica¬ 
tion  of  a  fact  accomplished  than  of  a  reform  instituted. 
The  contrast  presented  in  this  section  is  not,  then,  between 
the  decadent  education  of  the  late  imperial  times  and  the 
early  Roman,  but  rather  that  between  the  Graeco-Roman 
education  at  its  best  (the  third  period  of  Roman  educa¬ 
tion)  and  the  old  Roman  education  at  its  best. 

The  Sources.  Their  Interpretation.  —  The  evidences  of 
this  transition,  be  it  development  or  decline,  are  abundant, 
as  are  also  literary  references  to  the  change.  Yet  con¬ 
scious  comparisons  with  direct  reference  to  the  educa¬ 
tional  changes  are  rarer  than  those  concerning  the  similar 
transition  with  the  Greeks.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact 
that  the  change  was  less  sharp  than  with  the  Greeks; 
partly,  to  the  fact  that  the  Latins  did  not  give  full  expres¬ 
sion  to  all  their  life  in  permanent  literary  form.  As 
sources,  two  direct  comparisons,  of  widely  different  char¬ 
acter,  are  here  given.  One  of  these  dates  from  almost 
two  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  the  other  from 
three-quarters  of  a  century  after  its  beginning.  Evidently 
the  same  conditions  cannot  enter  into  the  comparison, 
though  the  general  characteristics  of  the  old  education  are 
substantially  the  same  in  each  selection.  The  first  is  a  very 
brief  comparison  found  in  the  Bacchides  of  Plautus  (Act 
III.,  Scene  3),  first  presented  in  189  b.c.  The  poet  begins 
by  presenting  the  main  features  of  the  old  Roman  educa- 


Contrast  between  Earlier  and  Later  Periods  357 

tion,  and  then  by  way  of  contrast,  the  changes  occurring 
under  the  influence  of  the  new  ideas  and  tendencies.  This 
play  is  written,  however,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  old  period, 
and  indicates  that  these  changes  have  already  begun, 
though  the  extreme  characterization  of  existing  conditions 
cannot  be  accepted  without  qualification.  Plautus  (254- 
189  b.c.)  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  one  of  the  most  free- 
spoken  Roman  comic  poets,  and  so  the  delineations  of  his 
times  must  be  interpreted  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
comic  stage.  The  scene  of  the  Bacchides  is  laid  in  Greece, 
and  in  the  play  itself  Plautus,  as  was  his  custom,  drew 
very  largely  from  Grecian  sources.  Hence  the  extreme 
view  of  the  poet  may  be  partially  due  to  the  fact  that  he 
has  Grecian  as  well  as  Roman  conditions  in  mind.  His 
characterization  of  the  new  education  relates  to  one  point 
only,  the  relations  of  the  parent,  pupil,  and  tutor.  Whatever 
reservations  need  be  made,  we  can  accept  as  true  the  state¬ 
ment  of  Plautus  that  much  of  the  old  Roman  reverence 
and  modesty  of  action  in  youth  has  deparledr^The  selec¬ 
tion  is  given,  then,  more  for  its  succinct  presentations 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  early  education  than  for  its 
evidence  as  to  the  time  of  transition  to  new  conditions. 

The  second  selection,  taken  from  the  Dialogus  de  Ora- 
toribus  of  Tacitus,  is  of  very  different  character,  and  is 
accurate  evidence  from  one  of  the  most  judicious  and 
observing  of  Roman  historians.  This  is  probably  the 
earliest  work  of  Tacitus  (b.  about  5°  A-D->  d.  about  117), 
as  it  was  written  about  79  a.d.  The  entire  work  is  an 
educational  treatise  of  the  same  general  character  as  the 
De  Oratore  of  Cicero.  It  is  an  essay  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue,  giving  an  account  of  the  decay  of  oratory  under 
the  Empire.  As  this  was  the  period  when  oratory  ex- 


35^  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

pressed  the  whole  aim  of  education  so  far  as  it  was  repre- 
sented  by  schools,  the  essay  presents  clearly  the  condition 
of  education  at  that  time.  The  passage  selected  (Chs. 
XXVIII. -XXXV.  inclusive)  bears  directly  upon  education 
in  the  broader  sense  of  the  terms  and  contains  the  direct 
comparison  in  Chs.  XXVIII.  and  XXXIV.,  between  the 
old  education  and  the  new.  In  the  interpretation  of  the 
passage  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  Tacitus,  while  a 
close  observer,  was  quite  pessimistic  concerning  condi¬ 
tions  of  Roman  society.  This  is  shown  in  his  other  writ¬ 
ings,  especially  the  Germania.  His  contemporary,  Pliny 
the  Younger,  gives  a  brighter  view  of  Roman  education 

at  that  period  as  he  does  of  Roman  society  in  general 
(see  Ch.  V.). 

The  Contrast  as  to  Aim,  Subject-matter,  Method,  Organi¬ 
zation.  —  In  the  earlier  periods  education  had  the  general 
aim  of  preparation  for  full  Roman  citizenship,  military, 
civic,  economic,  and  oratorical.  This  was  no  narrow  ideal, 
though  toward  the  latter  part  of  this  first  general  period,’ 
upon  the  basis  of  the  economic  and  civic  training,  the 
Roman  youth  might  specialize  on  military  or  legal,  that  is, 
oratorical,  lines.  Oratory  as  a  single  aim  did  not  yet  exist. 
Husbandry,  the  army,  public  meetings  and  courts,  each 
demanded,  of  every  Roman  citizen  the  performance  of 
certain  civic  duties.  The  aim  was  general ;  the  education, 
broad.  Into  it  entered  little  of  the  literary  element,  and 
the  little  demanded  scarcely  called  for  formal  training. 
In  the  latter  period  the  whole  aim  of  higher  education  is 
expressed  in  the  one  word,  oratory.  A  full  exposition  of 
this  conception  of  education,  at  its  best,  is  given  later  in 
the  selections  from  Cicero’s  De  Oratore.  The  account 
given  by  Tacitus  is  drawn  from  the  same  period,  but  a 


Contrast  between  Earlier  and  Later  Periods  359 

century  later,  when  oratorical  education  had  become  much 
more  formal  and  artificial.  The  content  of  education  in 
the  respective  periods  follows  the  aim  very  closely.  In 
the  early  periods,  its  essential  part  was  a  training  in  the 
duties  of  the  householder,  the  soldier,  the  member  of  cer¬ 
tain  civic  assemblies,  the  defender  of  one’s  own  rights  and 
ideas  before  courts  of  laws.  This  general  training  de¬ 
manded  a  certain  amount  of  literary  instruction,  small  at 
first,  but  of  constantly  increasing  volume.  It  included 
reading,  writing,  calculation,  mastering  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  and  the  acquisition  of  national  hymns  and  legends. 
In  the  second  part  of  the  old  Roman  period  there  was 
added  a  small  amount  of  literary  study  centring  around 
the  Latinized  Odyssey  and  early  Latin  literature.  On  this 
point,  however,  there  is  little  direct  evidence.  In  the  con¬ 
trast  presented  by  Tacitus,  the  content  of  education  —  at 
least  of  higher  education  —  has  become  wholly  literary, 
and  in  the  hands  of  the  rhetoricians  is  made  extremely 
artificial.  This  training  in  the  “  rhetorical  circus  ”  sup¬ 
plants  the  earlier  training  in  all-round  citizenship.  The 
contrast  in  methods  and  institutional  organization  is  even 
greater.  The  method  of  old  Roman  education  is  essen¬ 
tially  that  of  the  apprentice  system ;  the  youth  learns  by 
observation  and  direct  imitation  of  the  master,  in  the 
army,  at  the  farm,  in  the  courts  and  the  forum.  To  this 
training  is  added  a  small  amount  of  instruction  by  the 
parent  or  by  the  master.  In  the  latter  period,  the  school 
supplants  the  home  and  the  camp  and  forum,  and  this  early 
training  gives  place  to  the  formal  instruction  of  the  rhe¬ 
torical  school.  Here  the  instruction  is  largely  philological 
instead  of  literary  in  the  broader  sense ;  and  dialectical 
discussion  of  fictitious  cases  replaces  the  observation  of, 


36  o  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

and  practice  in,  the  rendering  of  justice  and  the  shaping 
of  men’s  motives  and  actions. 

Such  a  change  could  not  but  be  related,  both  as  cause 
and  effect,  to  a  change  in  spirit  —  a  change  in  regard 
to  the  attitude  of  parents  toward  the  education  of  their 
children ;  a  change  in  the  attitude  of  pupils  toward  their 
teachers,  their  school  work,  and  their  life  obligations ;  and 
a  change  in  the  attitude  of  teachers  toward  their  pro¬ 
fession  and  their  pupils.  This  change  in  spirit  is  indi¬ 
cated  in  both  selections. 


Selections  from  the  Bacchides 1  of  Plautus 


Contrast 
between  the 
old  and  the 
new  Roman 
education; 


Act  III.,  Sc.  III. 

27.  Lydus.  I  declare  that  for  your  first  twenty  years 
you  had  not  even  this  much  liberty,  to  move  your  foot 
out  of  the  house  even  a  finger’s  length  away  from  your 
tutor.  When  it  did  happen  so,  this  evil,  too,  was  added 
to  the  evil;  both  pupil  and  preceptor  were  esteemed  dis¬ 
graced.  Before  the  rising  of  the  sun  had  you  not  come 
to  the  school  for  exercise,2  no  slight  punishment  would 
you  have  had  at  the  hands  of  the  master  of  the  school. 
There  did  they  exercise  themselves  rather  with  running, 
wrestling,  the  quoit,  the  javelin,  boxing,  the  ball,  and  leap¬ 
ing,  rather  than  with  harlots  or  with  kissing;  there  did 
they  prolong  their  lives,  and  not  in  secret-lurking  holes. 
Then,  when  from  the  hippodrome3  and  school  of  exercise 
you  had  returned  home,  clad  in  your  belted  frock,  upon 
a  stool  by  your  master 4  would  you  sit ;  and  there,  when 
you  were  reading  your  book,  if  you  made  a  mistake  in 
a  single  syllable,  your  skin  would  be  made  as  spotted 
as  your  nurse’s  gown. 


The  scene  is  laid  in  Greece.  This  passage,  however,  indicates  the  change 
that  has  come  over  old  Roman  education  with  the  introduction  of  Grecian 
ideas  and  the  degeneracy  of  old  Roman  morals. 

2  The  palaestra,  the  school  for  athletic  exercise. 

8  The  riding  school  *  The  music  or  literary  school. 


Contrast  between  Earlier  and  Later  Periods  361 

Mnes.  [aside].  I’m  sorely  vexed,  to  my  sorrow,  that  on 
my  account  these  things  should  be  said  about  my  friend. 
In  his  innocence  he  incurs  this  suspicion  for  my  sake. 

Philo.  The  manners,  Lydus,  now  are  altered. 

Lyd.  That,  for  my  part,  I  know  full  well.  For  formerly, 
a  man  used  to  receive  public  honors  by  the  votes  of  the 
people,  before  he  ceased  to  be  obedient  to  one  appointed 
his  tutor.  But  now-a-days,  before  he  is  seven  years  old, 
if  you  touch  a  boy  with  your  hand,  at  once  the  child  breaks 
his  tutor’s  head  with  his  tablet.  When  you  go  to  com¬ 
plain  to  the  father,  thus  says  the  father  to  the  child  :  “  Be 
you  my  own  dear  boy ,  since  you  can  defend  yourself  from 
an  injury.”  The  tutor  then  is  called  for;  “Hallo!  you 
old  good-for-nothing,1  don’t  you  be  touching  the  child  for 
this  reason,  that  he  has  behaved  so  boldly ;  ”  and  thus  the 
despised  tutor  becomes  just  like  a  lantern  with  his  oiled 
linen  rags.2  Judgment  pronounced,  they  go  away  thence. 
Can  this  preceptor  then,  on  these  terms,  keep  up  his 
authority,  if  he  himself  is  to  be  beaten  the  first  ? 

Tacitus :  Dialogue  concerning  Oratory  3 

28.  Messala  resumed  his  discourse.  The  causes  of  the 
decay  of  eloquence  are  by  no  means  difficult  to  be  traced. 
They  are,  I  believe,  well  known  to  you,  Maternus,  to  Secun- 
dus,  and  even  to  Aper,4  though  I  am  now,  at  your  request 
to  expound  what  we  all  feel.  For  is  it  not  obvious  that 
eloquence,  with  the  rest  of  the  polite  arts,  has  lost  its  former 
lustre,  not  for  want  of  men,  but  through  the  dissipation  of 
our  young  men,  the  inattention  of  parents,  the  ignorance 
of  those  who  pretend  to  give  instruction,  and  the  total  neg¬ 
lect  of  ancient  discipline  ?  The  mischief  began  at  Rome, 
it  has  overrun  all  Italy,  and  is  now  spreading  through  the 
provinces.  You,  however,  know  more  than  I  of  the  state 

1  Ordinarily  they  were  slaves. 

2  Commentators  suppose  this  to  mean  that  he  is  comparing  his  head,  when 
it  has  been  broken  by  the  tablets  and  plastered  over  with  oiled  linen,  to  the 
ordinary  Roman  lantern  made  of  oiled  linen  cloth. 

3  The  scene  of  the  dialogue  is  laid  in  the  sixth  year  of  Vespasian,  75  A.D. 

4  Personages  of  the  dialogue. 


as  to  the 
relation 
between 
pupil  and 
teacher. 


Decline  of 
education 
the  early 
imperial 
period. 


362  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Training  of 
the  child 
according  to 
old  Roman 
ideas. 


Compared 
with  the 
training 
given  them 
in  imperial 
times. 


of  your  provinces  in  this  respect,  and  therefore  I  shall  con- 
fine  myself  to  those  peculiar  and  indigenous  vices  of  the 
capital  which  beset  our  youth  from  their  birth,  and  gather 
more  and  more  upon  them  through  every  season  of  life. 
But  before  I  enter  on  the  subject,  let  me  premise  a  few 
words  on  the  strict  discipline  of  our  ancestors,  in  educating 
and  training  up  their  children.  In  the  first  place  the  son 
of  every  family  was  the  legitimate  offspring  of  a  virtuous 
mother.  The  infant,  as  soon  as  born,  was  not  consigned 
to  the  mean  dwelling  of  a  hireling  nurse,  but  was  reared 
and  cherished  in  the  bosom  of  its  mother,  whose  highest 
praise  it  was  to  take  care  of  her  household  affairs,  and 
attend  to  her  children.  It  was  customary  likewise  for 
each  family  to  choose  some  elderly  female  relation  of 
approved  conduct,  to  whose  charge  the  children  were 
committed.  In  her  presence  not  one  indecent  word  was 
uttered ;  nothing  was  done  against  propriety  and  good 
manners.  The  hours  of  study  and  serious  employment 
were  settled  by  her  direction ;  and  not  only  so,  but  even 
the  diversions  of  the  children  were  conducted  with  mod' 
est  reserve  and  sanctity  of  manners.  Thus  it  was  that 
Cornelia,  the  mother  of  the  Gracchi,  superintended  the 
education  of  her  illustrious  issue.  It  was  thus  that 
Aurelia  trained  up  Julius  Caesar;  and  thus  Atia  formed 
the  mind  of  Augustus.  The  consequence  of  this  regular 
discipline  was,  that  the  young  mind,  whole  and  sound,  and 
unwarped  by  irregular  passions,  received  the  elements  of 
the  liberal  arts  with  hearty  avidity.  Whatever  was  the 
peculiar  bias,  whether  to  the  military  art,  the  study  of 
the  laws,  or  the  profession  of  eloquence,  that  engrossed  the 
whole  attention,  that  was  imbibed  thoroughly  and  totally. 

29.  In  the  present  age  what  is  our  practice?  The  infant 
is  committed  to  a  Greek  chambermaid,  and  a  slave  or  two, 
chosen  for  the  purpose,  generally  the  worst  of  the  whole 
household  train,  and  unfit  for  any  office  of  trust.  From 
the  idle  tales  and  gross  absurdities  of  these  people,  the 
tender  and  uninstructed  mind  is  suffered  to  receive  its 
earliest  impressions.  Throughout  the  house  not  one  ser¬ 
vant  cares  what  he  says  or  does  in  the  presence  of  his 
young  master  ;  and  indeed,  how  should  it  be  otherwise? 
since  the  parents  themselves  are  so  far  from  training  their 


Contrast  between  Earlier  and  Later  Periods  363 

young  families  to  virtue  and  modesty,  that  they  set  them 
the  first  examples  of  luxury  and  licentiousness.  Thus  our 
youth  gradually  acquire  a  confirmed  habit  of  impudence, 
and  a  total  disregard  of  that  reverence  they  owe  both  to 
themselves  and  to  others.  To  say  truth,  it  seems  as  if  a 
fondness  for  horses,  actors,  and  gladiators,  the  peculiar  and 
distinguishing  folly  of  this  our  city,  was  impressed  upon 
them  even  in  the  womb :  and  when  once  a  passion  of  this 
contemptible  sort  has  seized  and  engaged  the  mind,  what 
opening  is  there  left  for  the  noble  arts?  Who  talks  of 
anything  else  in  our  houses  ?  If  we  enter  the  schools, 
what  other  subjects  of  conversation  do  we  hear  among 
the  boys  ?  The  preceptors  themselves  choose  no  other 
topic  more  frequently  to  entertain  their  hearers ;  for  it  is 
not  by  establishing  a  strict  discipline,  or  by  giving  proofs 
of  their  genius,  that  this  order  of  men  gain  pupils,  but  by 
fawning  and  flattery.  Not  to  mention  how  ill  instructed 
our  youth  are  in  the  very  elements  of  literature,  sufficient 
pains  are  by  no  means  taken  in  bringing  them  acquainted 
with  the  best  authors,  or  in  giving  them  a  proper  notion  of 
history,  together  with  a  knowledge  of  men  and  things. 
The  whole  that  seems  to  be  considered  in  their  education 
is,  to  find  out  a  person  for  them  called  a  rhetorician.  I 
will  presently  give  you  some  account  of  the  introduction 
of  this  profession  at  Rome,  and  show  you  with  what  con¬ 
tempt  it  was  received  by  our  ancestors. 

30.  At  present,  I  must  advert  to  that  scheme  of  discipline 
which  the  ancient  orators  practised.  Their  unwearied  dili¬ 
gence,  their  habits  of  meditation,  and  their  constant  exer¬ 
cises  in  every  branch  of  study,  are  amply  displayed  in  their 
own  writings.  The  treatise  of  Cicero,  called  “  Brutus,”  is 
in  all  our  hands.  In  the  latter  part  of  that  work  (the 
former  part  is  employed  in  commemorating  the  ancient 
orators),  he  gives  a  sketch  of  the  several  progressive  steps 
by  which  he  formed  his  eloquence.  He  there  acquaints 
us,  that  he  studied  the  civil  law  under  Q.  Mucius ; 1  that 
he  was  instructed  in  the  several  branches  of  philosophy  by 
Philo  the  Academic,2  and  Diodorus  the  Stoic ;  that,  not 


Character  of 
school  life 
no  better. 


Education  of 
the  orator, 
according  to 
old  ideas. 


1  Quintus  Mucius  Scsevola,  the  leading  jurist  of  his  time. 

2  A  leading  philosopher  of  the  Platonic  school. 


Scope  of  his 
education. 


Skill  gained 
not  from 
school,  but 
from  contact 
with  actual 
life. 


His  training 
must  be 
broad,  both 
in  practical 
life 


364  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

satisfied  with  attending  the  lectures  of  those  eminent 
masters,  of  whom  there  were  at  that  time  great  numbers  in 
Rome,  he  made  a  voyage  into  Greece  and  Asia,  in  order  to 
enlarge  his  knowledge,  and  embrace  the  whole  circle  of  the 
sciences.  Accordingly  he  appears  by  his  writings  to  have 
been  familiar  with  geometry,  music,  grammar,  and  every 
liberal  art.  He  was  versed  in  the  subtleties  of  ethics,  and 
the  practical  lore  of  moral  philosophy.  He  had  studied 
the  operations  of  nature,  and  explored  the  causes  of  her 
phenomena.  And  thus  it  was,  my  worthy  friends,  that 
from  deep  learning  and  the  confluence  of  many  arts  and 
universal  science,  that  overflowing  and  exuberant  eloquence 
derived  its  strength  and  fulness.  For  it  is  not  with  the 
oratorical  power  and  faculty  as  with  others,  which  are 
exercised  within  certain  precise  and  determinate  limits :  on 
the  contrary,  he  alone  can  justly  be  deemed  an  orator,  who 
can  speak  on  every  subject  gracefully,  ornately,  and  per¬ 
suasively,  in  a  manner  suitable  to  the  dignity  of  his  sub¬ 
ject,  and  with  pleasure  to  his  hearers. 

31.  So  thought  those  renowned  orators  of  old.  In  order, 
however,  to  attain  these  eminent  qualifications,  they  did 
not  think  it  necessary  to  declaim  in  the  schools,  and  to 
exercise  their  tongues  and  their  voices  alone  upon  fictitious 
controversies,  remote  from  all  reality ;  but  rather  to  fill 
their  minds  with  such  studies  as  concern  life  and  manners, 
as  treat  of  moral  good  and  evil,  of  justice  and  injustice,  of 
the  decent  and  the  unbecoming  in  actions,  because  these 
constitute  the  subject  matter  of  the  orator ;  for  in  the 
courts  of  law  we  generally  descant  on  equity ;  in  delibera¬ 
tions,  on  moral  rectitude ;  whilst  yet  these  two  branches 
are  not  so  absolutely  distinct,  but  that  they  are  frequently 
blended  with  each  other.  Now  it  is  impossible  to  speak 
on  such  topics  with  fulness,  variety,  and  elegance,  unless 
the  orator  is  perfectly  well  acquainted  with  human  nature ; 
unless  he  understands  the  power  and  extent  of  moral 
duties,  the  perversity  of  vice,  and  other  things  besides, 
which  do  not  partake  either  of  vice  or  virtue. 

From  the  same  source,  likewise,  he  must  derive  his  influ¬ 
ence  over  the  passions.  He  who  knows  the  nature  of 
indignation,  will  be  able  to  kindle  or  allay  that  passion  in 
the  breast  of  the  judge;  and  the  advocate  who  has  con- 


Contrast  between  Earlier  and  Later  Periods  365 

sidered  the  effect  of  compassion,  and  from  what  secret 
springs  it  flows,  will  best  know  how  to  soften  the  mind, 
and  melt  it  into  tenderness.  It  is  by  these  secrets  of  his 
art  that  the  orator  gains  his  influence.  Whether  he  has  to 
do  with  the  prejudiced,  the  angry,  the  envious,  the  melan¬ 
choly,  or  the  timid,  he  can  bridle  their  various  passions, 
and  hold  the  reins  in  his  own  hand.  According  to  the  dis¬ 
position  of  each,  he  will  apply  his  skill,  and  modify  his 
speech,  having  the  needful  appliances  in  readiness  for 
every  occasion.  Some  there  are  who  like  best  that  close 
mode  of  oratory,  which  in  a  laconic  manner  states  the 
facts,  and  forms  an  immediate  conclusion  :  in  that  case,  it 
is  obvious  how  necessary  it  is  to  be  a  complete  master  of 
the  rules  of  logic.  Others  admire  a  more  diffuse  and  level 
style,  illustrated  by  images  drawn  from  common  observa¬ 
tion  :  towards  moving  such  hearers  the  Peripatetic  writers 
will  give  him  some  assistance ;  and  indeed  they  will,  in 
general,  supply  him  with  many  useful  hints  in  all  the  dif¬ 
ferent  methods  of  popular  address.  The  Academics  will 
inspire  him  with  a  becoming  warmth  :  Plato  will  give  him 
loftiness,  Xenophon  suavity.  Even  the  exclamatory  man¬ 
ner  of  Epicurus,  or  Metrodorus,1  may  be  found,  in  some 
circumstances,  not  altogether  unserviceable.  For  take 
note  that  I  am  not  laying  down  rules  for  building  up  an 
imaginary  wise  man,  or  a  city  of  the  Stoics,  but  for  ac¬ 
complishing  one  who  ought  not  to  confine  his  attention  to 
any  one  sect,  but  gather  freely  from  all.  Accordingly,  the  and  in 
ancient  orators  not  only  studied  the  civil  laws,  but  also  literary 
grammar,  poetry,  music,  and  geometry.  Indeed,  there  are  studies> 
few  causes  (perhaps  I  might  justly  say  there  are  none) 
wherein  a  skill  in  the  first  is  not  absolutely  necessary ;  and 
there  are  many  in  which  an  acquaintance  with  the  last- 
mentioned  sciences  is  highly  requisite. 

32.  Let  no  one  object  to  me  that  “  eloquence  is  the  single  Eloquence 
science  requisite  for  the  orator ;  an  occasional  recourse  to  not  the 
the  others  will  be  sufficient  for  all  his  purposes ;  ”  I  an-  ^etorical 
swer,  in  the  first  place,  there  will  always  be  a  remarkable  study  only, 
difference  in  the  manner  of  applying  what  we  take  up,  as 
it  were,  upon  loan,  and  what  we  properly  possess ;  so  that 
it  will  ever  be  manifest,  whether  the  orator  is  indebted  to 

1  The  favorite  disciple  of  Epicurus. 


Decline  of 
oratory  due 
to  this  nar¬ 
row  view  of 
education. 


366  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

others  for  what  he  produces,  or  derives  it  from  his  own 
unborrowed  fund.  And,  in  the  next,  the  sciences  throw 
an  inexpressible  grace  over  our  compositions,  even  where 
they  are  not  immediately  concerned ;  as  their  effects  are 
discernible  where  we  least  expect  to  find  them.  This 
powerful  charm  is  not  only  distinguished  by  the  learned 
and  the  judicious,  but  strikes  even  the  most  common  and 
popular  class  of  auditors ;  insomuch  that  one  may  fre¬ 
quently  hear  them  applauding  a  speaker  of  this  approved 
kind,  as  a  man  of  genuine  erudition ;  as  enriched  with  the 
whole  treasures  of  eloquence ;  and,  in  one  word,  a  com¬ 
plete  orator.  But  no  man,  I  affirm,  ever  did,  or  ever  can, 
maintain  that  exalted  character,  unless,  like  the  soldier 
marching  to  battle,  armed  at  all  points,  he  enters  the  forum 
equipped  with  the  whole  panoply  of  knowledge.  So  much, 
however,  is  this  principle  neglected  by  our  modern  pro¬ 
fessors  of  oratory,  that  their  pleadings  are  debased  by  the 
vilest  colloquial  barbarisms ;  they  are  ignorant  of  the  laws, 
unacquainted  with  the  acts  of  the  senate ;  the  common  law 
of  Rome  they  professedly  ridicule,  and  philosophy  they 
seem  to  regard  as  something  that  ought  to  be  shunned  and 
dreaded.  Thus  eloquence,  like  a  dethroned  potentate,  is 
banished  her  rightful  dominions,  and  confined  to  barren 
points  and  low  conceits :  and  she  who  was  once  mistress 
of  the  whole  circle  of  sciences,  and  charmed  every  be¬ 
holder  with  the  goodly  appearance  of  her  glorious  train,  is 
now  shorn  and  curtailed,  stripped  of  all  her  honours,  all 
her  attendants,  (I  had  almost  said  of  all  her  genius,)  and 
is  taken  up  as  one  of  the  meanest  of  the  mechanic  arts. 
This,  therefore,  I  consider  as  the  first,  and  the  principal 
reason  of  our  having  so  greatly  declined  from  the  spirit  of 
the  ancients. 

If  I  were  called  upon  to  support  my  opinion  by  author¬ 
ities,  might  I  not  justly  name,  among  the  Grecians,  Demos¬ 
thenes  ?  who,  we  are  informed,  constantly  attended  the 
lectures  of  Plato :  so  also,  among  our  own  countrymen, 
Cicero  himself  assures  us,  (and  in  these  very  words,  if  I 
rightly  remember,)  that  he  owed  whatever  advances  he 
had  made  in  eloquence,  not  to  the  rhetoricians,  but  to  the 
Academic  philosophers. 

Other  and  very  considerable  reasons  might  be  produced 


Contrast  between  Earlier  and  Later  Periods  367 

for  the  decay  of  eloquence.  But  I  leave  them,  my  friends, 
as  it  is  proper  I  should,  to  be  mentioned  by  you ;  having 
performed  my  share  in  the  examination  of  this  question, 
and  with  a  freedom  which  will  give,  I  imagine,  as  usual, 
much  offence.  I  am  sure,  at  least,  if  certain  of  our  con¬ 
temporaries  were  to  be  informed  of  what  I  have  here  main¬ 
tained,  I  should  be  told,  that  in  laying  it  down  as  a  maxim, 
that  a  knowledge  both  of  law  and  philosophy  are  essential 
qualifications  in  an  orator,  I  have  been  fondly  pursuing  a 
phantom  of  my  own  imagination. 

33.  I  am  so  far  from  thinking,  replied  Maternus,  that 
you  have  completed  the  part  you  undertook,  that  I  should 
rather  imagine  you  had  only  given  us  the  first  general 
sketch  of  your  design.  You  have  marked  out  to  us,  indeed, 
those  sciences  wherein  the  ancient  orators  were  instructed, 
and  have  placed  in  strong  contrast  their  successful  industry 
with  our  sloth  and  ignorance.  But  something  further  still 
remains ;  and  as  you  have  shown  us  what  was  the  vastness 
of  their  knowledge,  and  the  littleness  of  our  own,  I  would 
have  you  acquaint  us  also  with  the  particular  exercises 
by  which  the  youth  of  those  earlier  days  were  wont  to 
strengthen  and  improve  their  genius.  For  I  think  you 
will  not  deny  that  oratory  is  acquired  by  practice  far  better 
than  by  precept :  and  our  friends  here  seem,  by  their  coun¬ 
tenances,  to  imply  as  much. 

Aper  and  Secundus  having  signified  their  assent,  Mes- 
sala,  resumed  his  discourse  as  follows : 

Having  then,  as  it  should  seem,  disclosed  to  your  satis¬ 
faction  the  seeds  and  first  principles  of  ancient  eloquence, 
by  specifying  the  several  studies  in  which  the  ancient 
orators  were  trained ;  I  shall  now  lay  before  you  the  prac¬ 
tical  exercises  they  pursued,  in  order  to  gain  a  facility  in 
the  exertion  of  eloquence.  Note,  however,  that  the  very 
act  of  studying  implies  practice;  for  it  is  impossible  to 
acquire  knowledge  so  various  and  recondite,  without  knowl¬ 
edge  leading  to  reflection,  reflection  to  grasp  and  com¬ 
mand  of  thought,  and  this  to  ready  power  of  utterance. 
Thus  it  appears  that  to  learn  what  you  shall  deliver,  and 
to  be  able  to  deliver  what  you  have  learned,  are  in  princi¬ 
ple  one  and  the  same.  But  if  in  this  I  appear  to  any  one 
to  speculate  too  abstrusely ;  if  any  one  insist  on  separating 


The 

methods  of 
the  old 
education. 


Education 
by  appren¬ 
ticeship. 


368  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

knowledge  from  practice,  at  least  he  will  not  deny  that  a 
mind  filled  with  manifold  instruction  will  enter  with  so 
much  the  more  advantage  upon  those  exercises  peculiar  to 
the  oratorical  circus. 

34.  The  practice  of  our  ancestors  was  agreeable  to  this 
theory.  The  youth  who  was  intended  for  public  declama¬ 
tion,  was  introduced  by  his  father,  or  some  near  relation, 
with  all  the  advantages  of  home  discipline  and  a  mind 
furnished  with  useful  knowledge,  to  the  most  eminent 
orator  of  the  time,  whom  thenceforth  he  attended  upon  all 
occasions ;  he  listened  with  attention  to  his  patron’s  plead¬ 
ings  in  the  tribunals  of  justice,  and  his  public  harangues 
before  the  people ;  he  heard  him  in  the  warmth  of  argu¬ 
ment;  he  noted  his  sudden  replies;  and  thus,  in  the  field 
of  battle,  if  I  may  so  express  myself,  he  learned  the  first 
rudiments  of  rhetorical  warfare.  The  advantages  of  this 
method  are  obvious :  the  young  candidate  gained  courage, 
and  improved  his  judgment ;  he  studied  in  open  day, 
amidst  the  heat  of  the  conflict,  where  nothing  weak  or 
idle  could  be  said  with  impunity  ;  where  everything  absurd 
was  instantly  rebuked  by  the  judge,  exposed  to  ridicule 
by  the  adversary,  and  condemned  by  the  whole  body  of 
advocates.  In  this  way  they  imbibed  at  once  the  pure 
and  uncorrupted  streams  of  genuine  eloquence.  But 
though  they  chiefly  attached  themselves  to  one  particular 
orator,  they  heard  likewise  all  the  rest  of  their  contem¬ 
porary  pleaders,  in  many  of  their  respective  debates ;  and 
they  had  an  opportunity  of  acquainting  themselves  with 
the  various  sentiments  of  the  people,  and  of  observing 
what  pleased  or  disgusted  them  most  in  the  several  orators 
of  the  forum.  Thus  they  were  supplied  with  an  instructor 
of  the  best  and  most  improving  kind,  exhibiting,  not  the 
feigned  semblance  of  Eloquence,  but  her  real  and  lively 
manifestation :  not  a  pretended,  but  a  genuine  adversary, 
armed  in  earnest  for  the  combat ;  an  audience,  ever  full 
and  ever  new,  composed  of  foes  as  well  as  friends,  and 
where  not  a  single  expression  could  fall  uncensured,  or 
unapplauded.  For  you  are  aware  that  a  solid  and  last¬ 
ing  reputation  of  eloquence  must  be  acquired  by  the 
censure  of  our  enemies,  as  well  as  by  the  applause  of  our 
friends ;  or  rather,  indeed,  it  is  from  the  former  that  it 


Contrast  between  Earlier  and  Later  P enods  369 


derives  its  surest  and  most  unquestioned  strength  and 
firmness.  Under  such  a  schooling,  the  youth  of  whom 
we  are  speaking,  a  disciple  of  all  the  orators ;  an  atten¬ 
tive  hearer  of  all  judicial  proceedings ;  instructed  by  the 
experience  of  others ;  daily  conversant  with  the  laws  of 
his  country ;  familiar  with  the  faces  of  the  judges,  and  the 
aspect  of  a  full  audience;  and  well  acquainted  with  the 
popular  taste,  —  might  be  called  on  to  conduct  a  prosecu¬ 
tion  or  a  defence,  and  was  equal  to  cope,  single  handed, 
with  the  difficulties  of  his  task.  Crassus,  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  Caesar  at  twenty-one,  Pollio  at  twenty-two,  and 
Calvus  when  he  was  but  a  few  years  older,  pronounced 
those  several  speeches  againt  Carbo,  Dolabella,  Cato,  and 
Vatinius,  which  we  read  to  this  hour  with  admiration. 

35.  On  the  other  hand,  our  modern  youth  are  sent  to  the 
mountebank  schools  of  certain  declaimers  called  rhetori¬ 
cians  :  a  set  of  men  who  made  their  first  appearance  in 
Rome  a  little  before  the  time  of  Cicero.  And  that  they 
were  by  no  means  approved  by  our  ancestors,  plainly 
appears  from  their  being  enjoined,  under  the  censorship  1 
of  Crassus  and  Domitius,  to  shut  up  their  schools  of  impu¬ 
dence ,  as  Cicero  expresses  it.  But  I  was  going  to  say, 
our  youths  are  sent  to  certain  academies,  where  it  is  hard 
to  determine  whether  the  place,  the  company,  or  the 
method  of  instruction  is  most  likely  to  infect  the  minds  of 
young  people,  and  produce  a  wrong  turn  of  thought. 
There  can  be  nothing  to  inspire  respect  in  a  place  where 
all  who  enter  it  are  of  the  same  low  degree  of  understand¬ 
ing  ;  nor  any  advantage  to  be  received  from  their  fellow- 
students,  where  a  parcel  of  boys  and  raw  youths  of  unripe 
judgments  harangue  before  each  other,  without  the  least 
fear  or  danger  of  criticism.  And  as  for  their  exercises, 
they  are  ridiculous  in  their  very  nature.  They  consist  of 
two  kinds,  and  are  either  persuasive  or  controversial.  The 
first,  as  being  easier  and  requiring  less  skill,  is  assigned  to 
the  younger  lads ;  the  other  is  the  task  of  more  mature 
years.  But,  good  gods !  with  what  incredible  absurdity 
are  they  composed  !  And  this  as  a  matter  of  course,  for 
the  style  of  the  declamations  must  needs  accord  with  the 
preposterous  nature  of  the  subjects.  Thus  being  taught 

1  92  A.D.;  662  A.U.C. 

2  B 


Modern 

methods 

place 

instruction 
before 
practice. 
This  in¬ 
struction  is 
artificial. 


Formal 
character  of 
the  rhetori¬ 
cal  schools. 


37°  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

to  harangue  in  a  most  pompous  diction,  on  the  rewards 
due  to  tyrannicides,  on  the  election  to  be  made  by  deflow¬ 
ered  virgins,  on  the  licentiousness  of  married  women,  on 
the  ceremonies  to  be  observed  in  times  of  pestilence,  with 
other  topics,1  which  are  daily  debated  in  the  schools,  and 
scarce  ever  in  the  forum;  when  they  come  before  the 
real  judges.  ... 

1  These  are  specimen  topics  of  themes  debated  in  the  rhetorical  schools. 


IV.  SURVIVAL  OF  EARLY  ROMAN  EDUCA¬ 
TIONAL  IDEALS  IN  THE  LATER  PERIOD 


The  Sources  bearing  on  this  topic  are  minor  selections 
from  historians  relative  to  the  education  of  historic  char¬ 
acters,  and  the  first  chapter  from  the  Thoughts  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  education  of  the  four  youths 
therein  described  falls  in  the  third  period  of  Roman  educa¬ 
tion.  Each  of  the  four  attended  to  some  extent  the  Hellen- 
ized  school,  and  in  this  respect  these  selections  should  be 
classified  with  those  of  the  succeeding  group.  But  while 
they  throw  light  upon  the  education  of  that  period,  they 
are  not  typical  of  it.  They  represent  the  preservation 
of  the  old  Roman  educational  traditions  in  the  Hellen- 
ized  period,  modified  necessarily  by  the  dominant  influ¬ 
ences  ;  but  in  spirit  and  method,  and,  to  a  certain  extent 
in  organization,  though  not  in  content,  they  represent 
the  education  of  the  earlier  period.  The  earliest  of  the 
four  quotations  is  the  brief  description  of  the  early  edu¬ 
cation  of  Titus  Pomponius  Atticus,  born  109  b.c.  The 
description  is  taken  from  the  Lives  of  Eminent  Com¬ 
manders  of  Cornelius  Nepos.  Here  is  given  the  bare  out¬ 
lines  of  the  education  at  home  of  a  youth  of  equestrian 
rank.  When  twenty-one  years  of  age,  this  youth  removed 
to  Athens,  thereafter  devoting  many  years  to  study,  though 
of  this  Nepos  tells  little. 

The  second  quotation  dates  from  almost  a  century  later, 
and  relates  to  the  education  given  by  the  first  emperor, 

37i 


3  7 2  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Caesar  Augustus,  to  his  daughter  and  grandchildren.  The 
importance  of  the  evidence  is  due  to  the  light  it  throws  on 
the  method  and  content  of  education  in  the  imperial 
family,  as  such  education  is  clearly  a  survival  of  that  of 
the  earlier  period.  Unfortunately,  there  is  no  parallel  in 
results,  for  the  later  career  of  these  children  was  quite 
in  accord  with  the  degeneracy  of  the  upper  classes  of 
society  at  that  time ;  but  even  here  we  find  an  evidence  of 
the  validity  of  old  Roman  educational  methods,  for  the  chil¬ 
dren  did  but  imitate  the  example  of  father  and  grandfather. 

The  third  reference  is  indicative  of  the  survival  of  the 
old  ideas  in  the  provinces,  and  relates  to  the  education  of 
Cnaeus  Julius  Agricola  (37-93  A.  d.).  It  is  taken  from  the 
biography  by  the  historian  Tacitus,  and  bears  evidence  of 
the  importance  of  parental  influence  in  education  and  of 
the  method  of  apprenticeship  in  military  training. 

The  fourth  selection  gives  in  great  detail  the  education 
of  a  noble  youth  according  to  old  custom,  for  the  most 
part  long  since  fallen  into  decay.  It  is  the  autobio¬ 
graphical  chapter  of  the  Thoughts  of  the  philosopher 
emperor,  and  belongs  to  the  second  Christian  century. 
Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  (b.  12 1  a.d.,  d.  180)  was  the 
adopted  son  of  the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius,  and  associ¬ 
ated  with  him  for  many  years  in  the  imperial  office.  At 
the  death  of  Pius,  in  161,  Marcus  became  emperor,  in  turn 
associating  with  him  Lucius  Verus.  After  the  death  of 
Verus,  Marcus  ruled  alone  for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  a 
reign  of  nineteen  years.  His  early  education  was  cared 
for  by  his  paternal  grandfather  and  by  his  foster-father, 
who  was  one  of  the  best  Roman  emperors  of  any  period. 
In  spirit  and  method  it  represents  the  continuation  of 
the  old  Roman  traditions  ;  in  its  content,  it  was  much  more 


Survival  of  Early  Ideals  in  Later  Periods  373 

literary,  —  not  literary,  however,  after  the  prevailing 
notions,  for  Marcus  Aurelius  early  turned  to  the  study  of 
philosophy  instead  of  the  popular  study  of  rhetoric.  The 
type  of  philosophy  pursued  was  the  Stoic,  which  formed  a 
continuation  of  old  Roman  ideals  in  a  literary  age  and  in  a 
philosophical  form.  His  practical  education  was  directed 
in  the  same  manner.  In  fact,  the  Stoic  philosophy  at  that 
period  was  little  more  than  the  practical  wisdom  of  old 
Roman  life  put  in  Grecian  literary  form.  The  life  of  the 
emperor  was  one  of  practical  military  duties,  revealing 
throughout  the  effects  of  his  early  education.  The  one 
blot  on  his  character  was  his  persecutions  of  the  Christians, 
the  new  religious  sect  which  he  did  not  understand,  and 
which  at  that  time  was  causing  so  much  disturbance 
throughout  the  empire.  His  Thoughts  were  written  while 
on  a  campaign  against  the  Marcomanni,  and  are  dated 
at  the  various  camps  along  the  Danube.  The  first  chap¬ 
ter  gives  the  account  of  the  formation  of  his  character 
and  the  outline  of  his  early  education.  The  remaining 
eleven  chapters,  or  books,  are  a  collection  of  maxims,  or 
thoughts,  —  one  of  the  best  practical  expositions  of  the 
Stoic  philosophy. 

The  Stoic  Philosophy  represented  the  continuance  of  old 
Roman  ideas  and  practices  in  the  later  imperial  period. 
Its  introduction  into  Rome  was  coincident  with  the 
change  to  the  Hellenized  Roman  education.  In  its  origin, 
two  centuries  earlier,  it  had  represented  the  early  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  West  on  Grecian  thought,  and  had  never 
found  popular  acceptance  until  transplanted  to  Rome. 
There  it  became  dominant,  not  so  much  as  a  school  of 
philosophical  discussion,  as  was  the  case  in  Greece,  but 
rather  as  a  school  of  thought  and  a  type  of  life.  In  the 


37 4  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

imperial  period,  however,  Eclecticism  and  Epicureanism, 
rather  than  Stoicism,  were  more  in  line  with  the  tenden¬ 
cies  of  the  times.  In  the  last  century  and  a  half  of  the 
Republic,  Stoicism  became  popular  as  a  systematization 
of  old  Roman  ideas  of  life,  and  it  continued  in  imperial 
periods  only  so  far  as  the  old  ideals  commanded  respect. 
Hence  even  the  literary  education  as  described  by  Marcus 
Aurelius  is  not  typical,  but  represents  the  only  possible 
survival  of  the  old  in  an  age  of  culture  and  intellectual 
refinement.  Even  at  best,  the  Stoic  philosophy  was  so 
bound  up  with  the  old,  especially  the  old  religion,  that  it 
could  not  command  full  sympathy  in  quarters  of  indepen¬ 
dent  thought.  Hence,  opposed  by  the  Cynics  and  Eclectics 
on  the  one  hand,  by  the  Epicureans  and  the  indifferent  or 
scoffing  public  on  the  other,  these  survivals  of  the  old 
commanded  neither  the  following  nor  the  respect  that 
their  character  would  seem  to  justify. 

Summary  of  Survivals.  —  The  most  patent  of  these 
relates  to  the  organization  of  education.  Training, 
instruction,  centre  in  the  home  \  the  parent  retains  the 
interest,  the  sense  of  responsibility,  and  the  character  that 
made  for  the  results  of  earlier  times.  Where  the  parent 
cannot  give  the  higher  instruction,  tutors  are  employed 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  parent.  As  to  pur¬ 
pose,  education  is  still  largely  moral  and  relates  to  conduct 
rather  than  to  acquisition  of  knowledge  or  of  oratorical 
power.  The  enumeration  by  Aurelius  of  the  influences 
to  which  were  due  the  formation  of  his  character,  are, 
in  this  respect,  most  suggestive.  So  far  as  instruction  is 
literary,  it  has  for  its  aim  the  acquisition  of  practical  wis¬ 
dom  rather  than  of  dialectic  skill  or  forensic  verbosity. 
A  large  part  of  the  content  of  education  is  to  learn  by 


Survival  of  Early  Ideals  in  Later  Periods  375 

experience  and  observation  the  duties  of  the  householder, 
of  the  military  commander,  of  the  public  administrator. 
This  method,  which  makes  education  a  training  and  not 
a  process  of  instruction,  is  essentially  the  old  Roman 
method.  Formation  of  character  and  the  development  of 
the  power  to  do  through  direct  experience  in  the  observa¬ 
tion  and  imitation  of  others,  are  its  essential  characteristics. 


Selection  from  the  Life  of  T.  Pomponius  Atticus ,  by  Cor¬ 
nelius  Nepos 

chapter  i 

Pomponius  Atticus,  descended  of  an  ancient  Roman 
family,  kept  the  equestrian  dignity,  received  by  uninter¬ 
rupted  succession  from  his  ancestors.  He  had  a  diligent 
and  indulgent  father,  and,  as  the  times  were  then,  rich, 
and  above  all  things,  a  lover  of  learning.  As  he  loved 
learning  himself,  he  instructed  his  son  in  all  that  sort  of 
literature  that  youth  ought  to  be  acquainted  with.  There 
was  in  him  when  a  boy,  besides  a  docility  of  wit,  a  mighty 
sweetness  of  mouth  and  voice,  that  he  not  only  quickly 
took  in  what  was  taught  him,  but  also  pronounced  excel¬ 
lently  ;  upon  which  account  he  was  reckoned  famous 
amongst  his  fellows  in  his  childhood,  and  shone  out  more 
brightly  than  his  noble  school-fellows  were  able  to  bear 
with  a  patient  mind ;  wherefore  he  pushed  them  all  for¬ 
ward  by  his  great  application,  in  which  number  was  L. 
Torquatus,  C.  Marius  the  son,  M.  Cicero,  whom  he  so 
engaged  to  him  by  his  acquaintance  with  them,  that 
nobody  was  all  along  all  more  dear  to  them. 


Selection  from  the  Lives  of  the  First  Twelve  Cczsars  by 
C.  Suetonius  Tranquillus  —  Life  of  Ccesar  Augustus 

LXIV 

He  had  three  grandsons  by  Agrippa  and  Julia,  Caius, 
Lucius,  and  Agrippa;  and  two  grand-daughters,  Julia  and 


Early  edu¬ 
cation  and 
talents  of  a 
Roman 
youth  of 
highest 
rank. 


Education 
of  children 
of  highest 
rank  in  the 
home. 


The  influ¬ 
ence  of  a 
Roman 
mother  in 
the  educa¬ 
tion  of  her 
son. 


376  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Agrippina.  Julia  he  married  to  Lucius  Paullus,  the 
Censor’s  son,  and  Agrippina  to  Germanicus,  his  sister’s 
grandson.  Caius  and  Lucius  he  adopted  at  home,  by  the 
ceremony  of  purchase  from  their  father ;  advanced  them, 
whilst  yet  but  very  young,  to  posts  in  the  government ;  and 
after  he  had  procured  them  to  be  chosen  Consuls,  sent 
them  upon  a  tour  through  the  provinces  of  the  empire  and 
the  several  armies.  In  the  breeding  of  his  daughter  and 
grand-daughters,  he  accustomed  them  to  domestic  em¬ 
ployments,  and  obliged  them  to  speak  and  act  everything 
openly  before  the  family,  that  it  might  be  put  down  in  the 
diary.  He  so  strictly  prohibited  them  from  all  converse 
with  strangers,  that  he  once  wrote  a  letter  to  Lucius  Vini- 
cius,  a  handsome  young  man  of  a  good  family,  in  which 
he  told  him,  “You  have  not  behaved  very  modestly,  in 
making  a  visit  to  my  daughter  at  Bake.”  He  usually  in¬ 
structed  his  grandsons  himself  in  reading,  swimming,  and 
other  rudiments  of  knowledge ;  and  he  labored  at  nothing 
more  than  to  perfect  them  in  the  imitation  of  his  hand¬ 
writing.  He  never  supped  but  he  had  them  sitting  at  the 
foot  of  his  bed;  nor  ever  travelled  but  with  them  in  a 
chariot  before  him,  or  riding  beside  him. 


Selection  from  the  Agricola  of  Tacitus 

4.  Cn^eus  Julius  Agricola  was  born  at  the  ancient  and 
illustrious  colony  of  Forumjulii.1  .  .  .  His  mother  was 
Julia  Procilla,  a  lady  of  exemplary  chastity.  Educated 
with  tenderness  in  her  bosom,  he  passed  his  childhood  and 
youth  in  the  attainment  of  every  liberal  art.  He  was  pre¬ 
served  from  the  allurements  of  vice,  not  only  by  a  natur¬ 
ally  good  disposition,  but  by  being  sent  very  early  to 
pursue  his  studies  at  Massilia;2  a  place  where  Grecian 
politeness  and  provincial  frugality  are  happily  united.  I 
remember  he  was  used  to  relate,  that  in  his  early  youth 

1  Probably  in  Narbonnensian  Gaul,  though  there  was  another  colony  of  the 
same  name  in  Umbria. 

2  Marseilles.  It  was  a  Grecian  colony,  and  Grecian  characteristics  re* 
mained  during  the  Roman  control. 


Survival  of  Early  Ideals  in  Later  Periods  377 

he  should  have  engaged  with  more  ardour  in  philosophical 
speculation  than  was  suitable  to  a  Roman  and  a  senator, 
had  not  the  prudence  of  his  mother  restrained  the  warmth 
and  vehemence  of  his  disposition  :  for  his  lofty  and  up¬ 
right  spirit,  inflamed  by  the  charms  of  glory  and  exalted 
reputation,  led  him  to  the  pursuit  with  more  eagerness 
than  discretion.  Reason  and  riper  years  tempered  his 
warmth  ;  and  from  the  study  of  wisdom,  he  retained  what 
is  most  difficult  to  compass,  —  moderation. 

5.  He  learned  the  rudiments  of  war  in  Britain,  under 
Suetonius  Paullinus,  an  active  and  prudent  commander, 
who  chose  him  for  his  tent  companion,  in  order  to  form 
an  estimate  of  his  merit.  Nor  did  Agricola,  like  many 
young  men,  who  convert  military  service  into  wanton  pas¬ 
time,  avail  himself  licentiously  or  slothfully  of  his  tribuni- 
tial  title,  or  his  inexperience,  to  spend  his  time  in  pleasures 
and  absences  from  duty;  but  he  employed  himself  in 
gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  country,  making  himself  known 
to  the  army,  learning  from  the  experienced,  and  imitating 
the  best ;  neither  pressing  to  be  employed  through  vain¬ 
glory,  nor  declining  it  through  timidity  ;  and  performing  his 
duty  with  equal  solicitude  and  spirit. 


Selections  from  the  Thoughts  of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aure¬ 
lius  Antoninus  1 

CHAPTER  I 

1.  From  my  grandfather  Verus  (I  learned)  good  morals 
and  the  government  of  my  temper. 

2.  From  the  reputation  and  remembrance  of  my  father,2 
modesty  and  a  manly  character. 

3.  From  my  mother,3  piety  and  beneficence,  and  absti¬ 
nence,  not  only  from  evil  deeds,  but  even  from  evil  thoughts  ; 
and  further,  simplicity  in  my  way  of  living,  far  removed 
from  habits  of  the  rich. 


Military 
education 
by  appren 
ticeship. 


Early 
influence 
of  his 

parents  and 
tutors. 


1  From  the  translation  by  Long. 

2  Bearing  the  same  name  as  his  grandfather,  Annius  Verus. 

3  Domitia  Calvilla. 


Influence  of 
the  teach¬ 
ings  of  the 
Stoics. 


378  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

4.  From  my  great-grandfather,1  not  to  have  frequented 
public  schools,  and  to  have  had  good  teachers  at  home, 
and  to  know  that  on  such  things  a  man  should  spend 
liberally. 

5.  From  my  governor,  to  be  neither  of  the  green  nor 
of  the  blue  party  at  the  games  in  the  Circus,2  nor  a  par¬ 
tisan  either  of  the  Parmularius  or  the  Scutarius,3  at  the 
gladiators’  fights ;  from  him  too  I  learned  endurance  of 
labor,  and  to  want  little,  and  to  work  with  my  own  hands, 
and  not  to  meddle  with  other  people’s  affairs,  and  not  to 
be  ready  to  listen  to  slander. 

6.  From  Diognetus,  not  to  busy  myself  about  trifling 
things,  and  not  to  give  credit  to  what  was  said  by  miracle- 
workers  and  jugglers  about  incantations  and  the  driving 
away  of  daemons  and  such  things ;  and  not  to  breed  quails 
(for  fighting),  nor  to  give  myself  up  passionately  to  such 
things ;  and  to  endure  freedom  of  speech ;  and  to  have 
become  intimate  with  philosophy;  and  to  have  been  a 
hearer,  first  of  Bacchius,  then  of  Tandasis  and  Marcianus ; 
and  to  have  written  dialogues  in  my  youth  ;  to  have  desired 
a  plank  bed  and  skin,  and  whatever  else  of  the  kind  be¬ 
longs  to  the  Grecian  discipline. 

7.  From  Rusticus4  I  received  the  impression  that  my 
character  required  improvement  and  discipline ;  and  from 
him  I  learned  not  to  be  led  astray  to  sophistic  emulation, 
nor  to  writing  on  speculative  matters,  nor  to  delivering 
little  hortatory  orations,  nor  to  showing  myself  off  as  a 
man  who  practises  much  discipline,  or  does  benevolent 

1  It  is  suggested  that  his  mother’s  grandfather,  Catilius  Severus,  is  here  re¬ 
ferred  to. 

2  The  factions  were  originally  companies  of  contractors  who  provided 
horses,  drivers,  and  all  other  requisites  for  the  games.  These  factions 
were  distinguished  by  colors,  —  originally  two,  —  red  and  white;  later,  in  the 
time  of  Augustus,  blue  and  green  were  added;  still  later,  purple  and  gold. 
In  time  each  faction  was  organized  into  a  collegium  or  union.  The  rivalry 
between  these  became  intense,  the  populace  taking  sides.  Even  at  Rome 
factional  tights  took  place;  later  at  Constantinople  these  became  very  serious, 
one  during  the  reign  of  Justinian  causing  the  loss  of  thirty  thousand  lives. 

3  The  parmularius  carried  the  parma,  a  small  round  shield;  the  scutarius 
carried  the  scutum,  a  large  oblong  shield. 

4  A  Stoic  philosopher. 


Survival  of  Early  Ideals  in  Later  Periods  379 

acts  in  order  to  make  a  display ;  and  to  abstain  from 
rhetoric,  and  poetry,  and  fine  writing  ;  and  not  to  walk 
about  in  the  house  in  my  outdoor  dress,  nor  to  do  other 
things  of  the  kind ;  and  to  write  my  letters  with  simplicity, 
like  the  letter  which  Rusticus  wrote  from  Sinuessa  to  my 
mother ;  and  with  respect  to  those  who  have  offended  me 
by  words,  or  done  me  wrong,  to  be  easily  disposed  to  be 
pacified  and  reconciled,  as  soon  as  they  have  shown  a 
readiness  to  be  reconciled ;  and  to  read  carefully,  and  not 
to  be  satisfied  with  a  superficial  understanding  of  a  book ; 
nor  hastily  to  give  my  assent  to  those  who  talk  over-much  ; 
and  I  am  indebted  to  him  for  being  acquainted  with  the 
discourses  of  Epictetus,  which  he  communicated  to  me  out 
of  his  own  recollection. 

8.  From  Apollonius1  I  learned  freedom  of  will  and 
undeviating  steadiness  of  purpose ;  and  to  look  to  nothing 
else,  not  even  for  a  moment,  except  to  reason ;  and  to  be 
always  the  same,  in  sharp  pains,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
loss  of  a  child,  and  in  long  illness ;  and  to  see  clearly  in  a 
living  example  that  the  same  man  can  be  most  resolute 
and  yielding,  and  not  peevish  in  giving  his  instruction ; 
and  to  have  had  before  my  eyes  a  man  who  clearly  con¬ 
sidered  his  experience  and  his  skill  in  expounding  philoso¬ 
phical  principles  as  to  the  smallest  of  his  merits;  and  from 
him  I  learned  how  to  receive  from  friends  what  are 
esteemed  favors,  without  being  either  humbled  by  them 
or  letting  them  pass  unnoticed. 

9.  From  Sextus,2  a  benevolent  disposition,  and  the 
example  of  a  family  governed  in  a  fatherly  manner,  and  the 
idea  of  living  conformably  to  nature ;  and  gravity  without 
affectation,  and  to  look  carefully  after  the  interests  of 
friends,  and  to  tolerate  ignorant  persons,  and  those  who 
form  opinions  without  consideration :  he  had  the  power  of 
readily  accommodating  himself  to  all,  so  that  intercourse 
with  him  was  more  agreeable  than  any  flattery ;  and  at  the 
same  time  he  was  most  highly  venerated  by  those  who 
associated  with  him ;  and  he  had  the  faculty  both  of  dis¬ 
covering  and  ordering,  in  an  intelligent  and  methodical 


1  A  Stoic  philosopher,  preceptor  to  Antoninus. 

2  A  grandson  of  Plutarch. 


Influence  of 
the  gram¬ 
matical  and 
rhetorical 
teachers. 


His  appren 
ticeship  in 
Politus. 


380  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

way,  the  principles  necessary  for  life ;  and  he  never 
showed  anger  or  any  other  passion,  but  was  entirely  free 
from  passion,  and  also  most  affectionate;  and  he  could 
express  approbation  without  noisy  display,  and  he  pos¬ 
sessed  much  knowledge  without  ostentation. 

10.  From  Alexander,1  the  grammarian,  to  refrain  from 
fault-finding,  and  not  in  a  reproachful  way  to  chide  those 
who  uttered  any  barbarous  or  solecistic  or  strange-sounding 
expression ;  but  dexterously  to  introduce  the  very  expres¬ 
sion  which  ought  to  have  been  used,  and  in  the  way  of 
answer  or  giving  confirmation,  or  joining  in  an  inquiry 
about  the  thing  itself,  not  about  the  word,  or  by  some  other 
fit  suggestion. 

11.  From  Fronto2  I  learned  to  observe  what  envy  and 
duplicity,  and  hypocrisy  are  in  a  tyrant,  and  that  gener¬ 
ally  those  among  us  who  are  called  Patricians  are  rather 
deficient  in  paternal  affection. 

12.  From  Alexander  the  Platonic,  not  frequently  nor 
without  necessity  to  say  to  any  one,  or  to  write  in  a  letter, 
that  I  have  no  leisure ;  nor  continually  to  excuse  the 
neglect  of  duties  required  by  our  relation  to  those  with 
whom  we  live,  by  alleging  urgent  occupations. 

13.  From  Catulus,3  not  to  be  indifferent  when  a  friend 
finds  fault,  even  if  he  should  find  fault  without  reason,  but 
to  try  to  restore  him  to  his  usual  disposition ;  and  to  be 
ready  to  speak  well  of  teachers,  as  it  is  reported  of  Domi- 
tius  and  Athenodotus ;  and  to  love  my  children  truly. 

14.  From  my  brother  Severus,4  to  love  my  kin,  and  to 
love  truth,  and  to  love  justice;  and  through  him  I  learned 
to  know  Thrasea,  Helvidius,  Cato,  Dion,  Brutus ; 5 6  and 
from  him  I  received  the  idea  of  a  polity  in  which  there  is 
the  same  law  for  all,  a  polity  administered  with  regard  to 
equal  rights  and  equal  freedom  of  speech,  and  the  idea  of  a 
kingly  government  which  respects  most  of  all  the  freedom 

1  A  grammaticus,  a  native  of  Phrygia. 

2  Cornelius  Fronto,  a  rhetorician  and  teacher  and  friend  of  Antoninus. 

8  A  Stoic  philosopher. 

4  Antoninus  has  no  brother.  It  may  mean  cousin,  or  the  word  brother 

may  not  be  genuine. 

6  See  Plutarch’s  Lives  for  the  latter  three. 


Survival  of  Early  Ideals  in  Later  Periods  381 

of  the  governed ;  I  learned  from  him  also  consistency  and 
undeviating  steadiness  in  my  regard  for  philosophy ;  and 
a  disposition  to  do  good,  and  to  give  to  others  readily, 
and  to  cherish  good  hopes,  and  to  believe  that  I  am  loved 
by  my  friends ;  and  in  him  I  observed  no  concealment  of 
his  opinions  with  respect  to  those  whom  he  condemned, 
and  that  his  friends  had  no  need  to  conjecture  what  he 
wished  or  did  not  wish,  but  it  was  quite  plain. 

15.  From  Maximus1  I  learned  self-government,  and  not 
to  be  led  aside  by  anything ;  and  cheerfulness  in  all  circum¬ 
stances,  as  well  as  in  illness;  and  a  just  admixture  in  the 
moral  character  of  sweetness  and  dignity,  and  to  do  what 
was  set  before  me  without  complaining.  I  observed  that 
everybody  believed  that  he  thought  as  he  spoke,  and  that 
in  all  that  he  did  he  never  had  any  bad  intention ;  and  he 
never  showed  amazement  and  surprise,  and  was  never  in 
a  hurry,  and  never  put  off  doing  a  thing,  nor  was  per¬ 
plexed  nor  dejected,  nor  did  he  ever  laugh  to  disguise  his 
vexation,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  was  he  ever  passionate 
or  suspicious.  He  was  accustomed  to  do  acts  of  benefi¬ 
cence,  and  was  ready  to  forgive,  and  was  free  from  all 
falsehood ;  and  he  presented  the  appearance  of  a  man 
who  could  not  be  diverted  from  right  rather  than  of  a 
man  who  had  been  improved.  I  observed,  too,  that  no  man 
could  ever  think  that  he  was  despised  by  Maximus,  or  ever 
venture  to  think  himself  a  better  man.  He  had  also  the 
art  of  being  humorous  in  an  agreeable  way. 

1 6.  In  my  father2  I  observed  mildness  of  temper,  and 
unchangeable  resolution  in  the  things  which  he  had 
determined  after  due  deliberation,  and  no  vain-glory  in 
those  things  which  men  call  honors,  and  a  love  of  labor 
and  perseverance,  and  a  readiness  to  listen  to  those  who 
had  anything  to  propose  for  the  common  weal,  and  un¬ 
deviating  firmness  in  giving  to  every  man  according  to  his 
deserts  and  a  knowledge  derived  from  experience  of  the 
occasions  for  vigorous  action  and  for  remission.  And  I 
observed  that  he  had  overcome  all  passion  for  boys ;  and 
he  considered  himself  no  more  than  any  other  citizen,  and 


Education 
at  home 
through 
imitation. 


1  A  Stoic  philosopher. 

2  His  foster-father  and  predecessor,  the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius. 


382  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

he  released  his  friends  from  all  obligation  to  sup  with  him 
or  to  attend  him  of  necessity  when  he  went  abroad,  and 
those  who  had  failed  to  accompany  him,  by  reason  of  any 
great  circumstances,  always  found  him  the  same.  I  ob¬ 
served  too  his  habit  of  careful  inquiry  in  all  matters  of 
deliberation,  and  his  persistency,  and  that  he  never  stopped 
his  investigation  through  being  satisfied  with  appearances 
which  first  present  themselves  ;  and  that  his  disposition  was 
to  keep  his  friends,  and  not  to  be  soon  tired  of  them,  nor 
yet  to  be  extravagant  in  his  affection  ;  and  to  be  satisfied 
on  all  occasions,  and  cheerful ;  and  to  foresee  things  a  long 
way  off,  and  to  provide  for  the  smallest  without  display ; 
and  to  check  immediately  popular  applause  and  all  flattery  ; 
and  to  be  ever  watchful  over  the  things  which  were  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  administration  of  the  empire,  and  to  be  a  good 
manager  of  the  expenditure,  and  patiently  to  endure  the 
blame  which  he  got  for  such  conduct ;  and  he  was  neither 
superstitious  with  respect  to  the  gods,  nor  did  he  court 
men  by  gifts  or  by  trying  to  please  them,  or  by  flattering 
the  populace;  but  he  showed  sobriety  in  all  things  and 
firmness,  and  never  any  mean  thoughts  or  action,  nor  love 
of  novelty.  And  the  things  which  conduce  in  any  way  to 
the  commodity  of  life,  and  of  which  fortune  gives  an  abun¬ 
dant  supply,  he  used  without  arrogance  and  without  excus¬ 
ing  himself,  so  that  when  he  had  them  he  enjoyed  them 
without  affectation,  and  when  he  had  them  not  he  did  not 
want  them.  No  one  could  ever  say  of  him  that  he  was 
either  a  sophist,  or  a  (home-bred)  flippant  slave,  or  a 
pedant;  but  every  one  acknowledged  him  to  be  a  man 
ripe,  perfect,  above  flattery,  able  to  manage  his  own  and 
other  men’s  affairs.  Besides  this,  he  honored  those  who 
were  true  philosophers,  and  he  did  not  reproach  those  who 
pretended  to  be  philosophers,  nor  yet  was  he  easily  led  by 
them.  He  was  also  easy  in  conversation,  and  he  made  him¬ 
self  agreeable  without  any  offensive  affectation.  He  took 
a  reasonable  care  of  his  body’s  health,  not  as  one  who  was 
greatly  attached  to  life,  nor  out  of  regard  to  personal  ap¬ 
pearance,  nor  yet  in  a  careless  way,  but  so  that  through 
his  own  attention  he  very  seldom  stood  in  need  of  the 
physician’s  art  or  of  medicine  or  external  applications.  He 
was  most  ready  to  give  way  without  envy  to  those  who 


Survival  of  Early  Ideals  in  Later  Periods  383 


possessed  any  particular  faculty,  such  as  that  of  eloquence 
or  knowledge  of  the  law  or  of  morals,  or  of  anything  else ; 
and  he  gave  them  his  help,  that  each  might  enjoy  reputa¬ 
tion  according  to  his  deserts  ;  and  he  always  acted  comform- 
ably  to  the  institutions  of  his  country,  without  showing  any 
affectation  of  doing  so.  Further,  he  was  not  fond  of  change, 
nor  unsteady,  but  he  loved  to  stay  in  the  same  places,  and 
to  employ  himself  about  the  same  things;  and  after  his 
paroxysms  of  headache  he  came  immediately  fresh  and 
vigorous  to  his  usual  occupations.  His  secrets  were  not 
many,  but  very  few  and  very  rare,  and  these  only  about 
public  matters ;  and  he  showed  prudence  and  economy  in 
the  exhibition  of  the  public  spectacles  and  the  construction 
of  public  buildings,  his  donations  to  the  people,  and  in 
such  things,  for  he  was  a  man  who  looked  to  what  ought 
to  be  done,  not  to  the  reputation  which  is  got  by  a  man’s 
acts.  He  did  not  take  the  bath  at  unseasonable  hours ; 
he  was  not  fond  of  building  houses,  nor  curious  about  what 
he  ate,  nor  about  the  texture  and  color  of  his  clothes,  nor 
about  the  beauty  of  his  slaves.  His  dress  came  from  Lorium, 
his  villa  on  the  coast,  and  from  Lanuvium  1  generally.  We 
know  how  he  behaved  to  the  toll-collector  at  Tusculum  who 
asked  his  pardon ;  and  such  was  all  his  behavior.  There 
was  in  him  nothing  harsh,  nor  implacable,  nor  violent,  nor, 
as  one  may  say,  anything  carried  to  the  sweating  point ; 
but  he  examined  all  things  severally,  as  if  he  had  abundance 
of  time,  and  without  confusion,  in  an  orderly  way,  vigor¬ 
ously  and  consistently.  And  that  might  be  applied  to  him 
which  is  recorded  of  Socrates,2  that  he  was  able  both  to 
abstain  from  and  to  enjoy  those  things  which  many  are  too 
weak  to  abstain  from  and  cannot  enjoy  without  excess.  But 
to  be  strong  enough  both  to  bear  the  one  and  to  be  sober 
in  the  other  is  the  mark  of  a  man  who  has  a  perfect  and 
invincible  soul,  such  as  he  showed  in  the  illness  of  Maximus. 

17.  To  the  gods  I  am  indebted  for  having  good  grand¬ 
fathers,  good  parents,  a  good  sister,  good  teachers,  good 
associates,  good  kinsmen  and  friends,  nearly  every  thing 
good.  Further,  I  owe  it  to  the  gods  that  I  was  not  hurried 


Religious 
and  moral 
training. 


1  A  villa  on  the  coast  north  of  Rome.  Antoninus  was  brought  up  there. 

2  Xenophon,  Memorabilia ,  I.,  3,  15. 


His  grati¬ 
tude  for  the 
blessings 
conferred  by 
the  gods. 


384  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

into  any  offence  against  any  of  them,  though  I  had  a  dis~ 
position  which,  if  opportunity  had  offered,  might  have  led 
me  to  do  something  of  this  kind ;  but  through  their  favor 
there  never  was  such  a  concurrence  of  circumstances  as 
put  me  to  the  trial.  Further,  I  am  thankful  to  the  gods 
that  I  was  not  longer  brought  up  with  my  grandfather’s 
concubine,  .  .  .  and  that  I  was  subjected  to  a  ruler  and  a 
father  who  was  able  to  take  away  all  pride  from  me,  and 
to  bring  me  to  the  knowledge  that  it  is  possible  for  a  man 
to  live  in  a  palace  without  wanting  either  guards  or 
embroidered  dresses,  or  torches  and  statues,  and  such-like 
show;  but  that  it  is  in  such  a  man’s  power  to  bring  himself 
very  near  to  the  fashion  of  a  private  person,  without  being 
for  this  reason  either  meaner  in  thought  or  more  remiss 
in  action  with  respect  to  the  things  which  must  be  done 
for  the  public  interest  in  a  manner  that  befits  a  ruler.  I 
thank  the  gods  for  giving  me  such  a  brother,  who  was 
able  by  his  moral  character  to  rouse  me  to  vigilance  over 
myself,  and  who  at  the  same  time  pleased  me  by  his 
respect  and  affection ;  that  my  children  have  not  been 
stupid  nor  deformed  in  body ;  that  I  did  not  make  more 
proficiency  in  rhetoric,  poetry,  and  the  other  studies,  in 
which  I  should  perhaps  have  been  completely  engaged  if 
I  had  seen  that  I  was  making  progress  in  them ;  that  I 
made  haste  to  place  those  who  brought  me  up  in  the  sta¬ 
tion  of  honor  which  they  seemed  to  desire,  without  putting 
them  off  with  hope  of  my  doing  it  some  time  after,  because 
they  were  then  still  young ;  that  I  knew  Apollonius,  Rus- 
ticus,  Maximus  ;  that  I  received  clear  and  frequent  impres¬ 
sions  about  living  according  to  nature,  and  what  kind  of  a 
life  that  is,  so  that  so  far  as  depended  on  the  gods,  and 
their  gifts,  and  help,  and  inspirations,  nothing  hindered  me 
from  forthwith  living  according  to  nature,  though  I  still 
fall  short  of  it  through  my  own  fault  and  through  not 
observing  the  admonitions  of  the  gods,  and  I  may  almost 
say,  their  direct  instructions ;  that  my  body  has  held  out 
so  long  in  such  kind  of  life ;  that  I  never  touched  either 
Benedicta  or  Theodotus,  and  that  after  having  fallen  into 
amatory  passions  I  was  cured ;  and,  though  I  was  often 
out  of  humor  with  Rusticus,  I  never  did  any  thing  of  which 
I  had  occasion  to  repent ;  that  though  it  was  my  mother’s 


Survival  of  Early  Ideals  in  Later  Periods  385 

fate  to  die  young,  she  spent  the  last  years  of  her  life  with 
me  ;  that  whenever  I  wished  to  help  any  man  in  his  need,  or 
on  any  other  occasion,  I  was  never  told  that  I  had  not  the 
means  of  doing  it ;  and  that  to  myself  the  same  necessity 
never  happened  to  receive  any  thing  from  another ;  that  I 
have  such  a  wife,  so  obedient,  and  so  affectionate,  and  so 
simple ;  that  I  had  abundance  of  good  masters  for  my 
children ;  and  that  remedies  have  been  shown  to  me  by 
dreams,  both  others,  and  against  bloodspitting  and  giddi¬ 
ness  ; 1  .  .  .  and  that  when  I  had  an  inclination  to  philoso¬ 
phy  I  did  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  any  sophists,  and  that 
I  did  not  waste  my  time  on  writers  (of  histories),  or  in  the 
resolution  of  syllogisms,  or  occupy  myself  about  the  inves¬ 
tigation  of  appearances  in  the  heavens  ;  for  all  these  things 
require  the  help  of  the  gods  and  fortune. 

Among  the  Quadi  at  the  Granua.2 

1  Probably  written  during  the  war  with  the  Quadi.  They  lived  in  what  is 
now  the  southern  part  of  Bohemia.  The  Granua  flows  into  the  Danube. 

2  Text  is  corrupt. 


Escape  from 
a  literary 
education. 


V.  THE  THIRD  PERIOD:  THE  HELLENIZED 

ROMAN  EDUCATION 

The  Period  in  which  the  Hellenized  education  domi¬ 
nated  without  causing  a  complete  extinction  of  the  old 
Roman  virility,  includes  the  last  century  of  the  Republic 
and  the  first  century  and  a  half  or  two  centuries  of  the 
Empire.  Within  that  period  profound  changes  occurred, 
though  education  had  not  yet  become  a  purely  artificial 
and  lifeless  affair,  nor  Roman  stability  and  morality,  a 
thing  of  the  past.  This  period  comprises  the  Cicero¬ 
nian,  the  Augustan,  and  the  “  Silver  Age  ”  of  Latin 
literature.  During  this  period  the  Romans  attained  to 
whatever  merits  they  possessed  of  literary  and  artistic 
character.  It  covers  that  time  wherein  their  great  gen¬ 
ius  for  assimilation  and  organization  was  directed  into 
purely  intellectual  channels.  During  this  time  Grecian 
educational  ideas  and  practices  were  modified  to  fit  Roman 
conditions,  and  a  characteristic  education  resulted.  This 
differed  in  content  from  the  Grecian,  for  the  Romans 
were  too  practical  to  be  able  to  obtain  liberalizing  results 
from  music  and  gymnastic,  and  too  sedate  to  tolerate 
much  that  was  thoroughly  characteristic  of  the  Greek. 
Education  though  much  better  organized  and  systematized 
than  with  the  Greek,  was  in  its  method  less  thoroughly 
rationalized ;  for  with  the  Romans  education  remained  es¬ 
sentially  a  training  process.  The  sources  given  in  this 
section  are  all  drawn  from  the  literature  of  the  early  im- 

386 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  387 

perial  period,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  selection  from 
the  Satires  of  Horace,  refer  to  the  education  of  this  por¬ 
tion  of  the  third  period. 

The  Sources  and  their  Authors.  —  The  first  selections 
given  are  several  brief  excerpts  from  the  Satires ,  Epistles , 
and  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace.  They  relate  to  the  ideals, 
subject-matter,  method,  and  organization  of  education  dur¬ 
ing  the  period  of  his  boyhood.  Horace  was  born  65  b.c. 
at  Venusia,  where  he  received  his  early  education.  Dis¬ 
satisfied  with  the  work  of  the  provincial  schools,  his 
father  removed  to  the  capital  for  the  express  purpose  of 
improving  his  son’s  educational  opportunities.  Hence  the 
testimony  of  Horace  concerning  the  schooling  of  his  time 
is  especially  valuable ;  for  although  given  incidentally, 
the  educational  conditions  referred  to  were  of  epoch-making 
importance  in  his  life.  At  Rome  he  attended  the  school 
of  Orbilius,  whose  life  is  given  by  Suetonius  in  his 
Eminent  Grammarians.  Horace  became  practically  the 
laureate  of  the  Augustan  Age.  The  Epistles  and  Satires , 
from  which  these  selections  are  made,  were  written  be¬ 
tween  the  years  35  b.c.  and  8  b.c.,  the  year  of  the  poet’s 
death.  Both  because  they  give  a  most  intimate  view  of 
everyday  Roman  life,  and  also  because  they  soon  came  to 
be  an  established  text-book  in  Roman  schools,  the  writings 
of  Horace  are  valuable  to  the  student  of  education. 

The  two  Epigrams  of  Martial  relate  to  the  Roman 
schools,  and  give  intimate  views  of  their  practical  work¬ 
ings.  M.  Valerius  Martialis  was  born  in  Spain  43  a.d., 
came  to  Rome  during  the  reign  of  Nero,  and  for  thirty- 
five  years  remained  in  the  favor  of  successive  emperors. 
His  fifteen  hundred  Epigrams  form  an  important  source  of 
information  concerning  the  social  customs  of  the  first  cen- 


388  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

tury  of  the  empire.  The  two  books  from  which  the  two 
selections  are  made  were  written  between  90  and  99  a.d. 

One  brief  selection,  given  from  the  Lives  of  the  Twelve 
Ccesars,  by  Suetonius,  relates  to  the  grant  of  imperial  sup¬ 
port  to  education.  It  has  been  previously  noted  that  the 
literary  work  of  Suetonius  followed  his  fall  from  favor, 
1 21  a.d.  The  reign  of  Vespasian,  to  whom  was  due  the 
beginning  of  this  most  important  custom,  extended  from 
70  to  79  A.D. 

The  fragments  of  the  writings  of  Gaius  Musonius  Rufus 
furnish  the  next  selection.  Musonius  lived  during  the 
last  half  of  the  first  Christian  century,  and  was  especially 
in  favor  with  Vespasian.  While  the  discussion  directly 
concerns  the  education  of  women,  it  relates  at  the  same 
time  to  the  methods  and  character  of  education  in  general, 
since  Musonius  held  that  it  should  be  essentially  the  same 
as  that  of  men. 

Aside  from  the  work  of  Quintilian,  the  most  extensive 
references  to  the  educational  conditions  of  the  times  are  to 
be  found  in  the  correspondence  of  the  younger  Pliny. 
Gaius  Plinius  Csecilius  Secundus  was  born  62  a.d.,  and 
died  about  114.  His  life  was  spent  in  the  service  of  the 
state,  where  he  held  many  important  offices,  including 
those  of  consul  and  of  provincial  governor.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Quintilian  and  a  friend  of  Martial,  Suetonius,  and 
Tacitus.  As  is  evidenced  by  his  Epistles ,  he  is  interested 
in  almost  every  aspect  of  the  public,  social,  and  intellectual 
life  of  his  times,  and  is  one  of  the  best  types  of  the  broad¬ 
minded  Roman  citizen.  The  collection  of  letters  from 
which  these  selections  are  made  dates  from  97  to  108  a.d. 
The  chief  importance  of  the  letters  selected  is  their  bear¬ 
ing  upon  the  educational  institutions  of  the  times,  though 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  389 

they  also  refer  to  the  method  and  content  of  the  approved 
type  of  education.  By  reason  of  his  broad  experience,  his 
cultivated  taste,  keen  insight,  and  liberal  views  and  dispo¬ 
sition,  Pliny  is  competent  to  speak  on  these  subjects.  He 
is  touched  neither  by  the  pessimism  of  the  righteous  nor 
the  prevalent  corruption  of  the  masses  of  the  times. 
Upright  both  in  public  and  private  life,  when  the  examples 
set  in  high  places  and  frequently  followed  in  inferior  ones 
were  the  reverse,  he  gave  his  wealth  and  best  efforts  to 
the  improvement  of  his  fellows.  He  gives  one  aspect  of 
the  times,  while  the  selections  from  Juvenal  give  quite 
another. 

Little  definite  is  known  concerning  the  life  of  Juvenal, 
but  it  is  certain  that  the  Satires  belong  to  the  first  two 
decades  of  the  second  Christian  century.  He  speaks  with 
full  authority  on  the  education  and  the  customs  of  his 
times,  since  he  had  the  benefit  of  the  liberal  education  of 
his  times,  and  seems  to  have  devoted  the  first  forty  years 
of  his  life  to  the  study  and  practices  of  oratory,  though 
rather  in  following  his  own  inclinations  than  in  prepara¬ 
tion  for  activity  in  schools  or  courts.  It  is  only  after  his 
fortieth  year  that  he  devotes  himself  to  writing.  While 
some  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  license  of  a  satirist, 
we  may  at  least  be  sure  that  he  speaks  with  a  full  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  state  of  the  education  of  that  period.  One  of 
the  satires,  the  seventh,  is  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the 
status  of  the  literary  profession,  including  teaching;  the 
other,  the  fourteenth,  to  the  influence  of  the  home  in  the 
moral  education  of  the  child.  The  whole  of  this  satire  is 
significant,  treating  as  it  does  of  the  decadence  of  the 
times,  but  most  of  it  must  be  omitted  in  deference  to  the 
standards  of  modern  taste. 


390  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Purpose  and  Content  of  Education  of  this  Period.  —  This 
topic  is  treated  in  detail  in  the  two  chapters  following ;  yet 
there  are  side-lights  of  importance  to  be  found  in  the  selec¬ 
tions  just  referred  to.  Education,  so  far  as  it  commands 
popular  interest,  has  become  wholly  literary,  and  is  com¬ 
prehended  in  the  work  of  the  grammatical  and  rhetorical 
schools  of  the  day,  of  which  oratory  is  the  sole  aim. 
Nevertheless,  while  there  is  little  formal  change,  save  by 
way  of  improvement,  between  the  age  of  Cicero  and  that 
of  Pliny  and  Juvenal,  there  is  a  profound  change  in  the 
spirit.  Education  is  still  wholly  rhetorical,  but  it  has  now 
become  artificial,  critical,  affected,  imitative,  and  marked 
by  a  pedantry  and  self-consciousness  not  found  in  the  last 
age  of  the  Republic.  In  these  respects,  education  simply 
participates  in  the  characteristic  changes  that  have  come 
about  in  society. 

In  several  of  these  selections  interesting  side-lights  are 
thrown  on  the  accepted  purpose  of  education.  Horace,  in 
the  Ars  Poetica ,  objects  to  the  materialistic  character  of 
Roman  education  ;  Musonius,  as  becomes  a  Stoic,  insists 
that  philosophy  should  have  an  important  place  in  the 
education  of  both  women  and  men ;  Pliny,  in  the  ninth 
Epistle  of  the  seventh  Book,  holds  that  oratory  should  not 
be  the  sole  aim  of  education.  Still  he  does  not  broaden  it 
beyond  literary  lines,  and  his  argument  is  but  another  evi¬ 
dence  of  the  artificiality  of  the  age  as  compared  with  the 
centuries  of  the  Republic. 

The  Organization  of  Education.  —  Both  Horace  and 
Martial  give  pictures  of  the  ordinary  school  in  Rome  and 
in  the  provincial  cities.  It  is  the  Indus  that  is  referred  to 
by  both,  though  Horace  also  makes  reference  to  the  gram¬ 
matical  school  of  Orbilius.  Of  the  Indus  we  see  the  early 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  391 

and  long  hours ;  the  harsh  discipline ;  the  unamiable  and 
inefficient  teachers ;  the  simple  curriculum,  consisting  of 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  Horace,  to  be  sure, 
speaks  quite  definitely  of  the  use  of  literature  as  the  basis 
of  elementary  school  work,  but  evidently  the  Indus  that  he 
attended  was  of  exceptional  character.  These  schools  con¬ 
tinue  to  be  tuition  schools,  the  customs  as  to  the  time  and 
method  of  payment  being  indicated  in  both  Horace  and 
Martial.  During  this  period  the  ludi  practically  supplant 
the  home  as  institutions  for  early  instruction ;  and,  if  we 
accept  the  evidences  of  the  protests  of  Juvenal,  Tacitus, 
and  others  of  the  imperial  period,  as  institutions  for  moral 
training  as  well.  The  burden  of  these  moralists,  whether 
satirists  or  philosophers,  is  insistence  upon  the  responsi¬ 
bility  of  the  parents  in  this  latter  respect ;  and  this  in¬ 
sistence  is  good  evidence  that  the  old  customs  have  fallen 
into  desuetude. 

After  a  few  years  in  the  Indus ,  the  boy  began  attendance 
upon  the  secondary  school,  the  school  of  the  grammaticus . 
Here  the  instruction  was  wholly  grammatical  and  literary, 
including  both  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages.  To  a  con¬ 
siderable  extent  the  Greek  grammar  schools  and  Latin 
grammar  schools  were  distinct ;  the  approved  plan  was  to 
send  the  boy  to  the  Greek  school  first.  The  instruction  in 
grammar  continues  to  be  given  in  many  cases,  perhaps  in 
most  cases,  by  tutors  in  the  family.  The  care  involved 
in  the  selection  of  these  teachers  as  well  as  their  rewards  is 
indicated  in  the  letters  of  Pliny  and  in  the  seventh  Satire  of 
Juvenal.  Like  the  ludi,  these  schools  are  also  private, 
though  late  in  the  second  century  of  the  Empire  they  are 
the  recipients  of  government  aid.  Many  of  these  schools 
trench  upon  the  work  of  the  rhetorical  schools  in  giving 


392  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

instruction  in  declamation  and  disputation,  as  is  evidenced 
in  the  comments  of  Suetonius  given  in  the  previous  chap¬ 
ter  and  in  some  of  the  selections  here  given. 

During  this  period  the  higher  or  rhetorical  education  is 
definitely  systematized.  Despite  the  action  of  the  Senate 
during  the  period  of  the  Republic,  and  a  similar  action  of 
the  Emperor  Domitian,  95  a.d.,  banishing  philosophers  and 
the  higher  teachers  in  Rome,  this  type  of  education  flour¬ 
ished,  and  the  schools  of  the  rhetors  represented  the  domi¬ 
nant  education.  Philosophical  schools  existed,  but  were 
never  popular.  The  schools  of  the  rhetors  prepared  the 
great  majority  for  Roman  life.  While  to  some  extent  this 
rhetorical  education  was  also  given  by  tutors,  as  is  indi¬ 
cated  by  the  third  Epistle  of  the  third  Book  of  Pliny ;  the 
school  was  the  dominant  type,  as  is  demonstrated  by  the 
facts  of  the  life  of  Quintilian  and  Suetonius’  Lives 
Eminent  Rhetoricians ,  as  well  as  by  such  descriptions  as 
those  of  the  seventh  Satire  of  Juvenal  and  of  Epistle  viii., 
Book  I.,  and  Epistle  xiii.,  Book  IV.,  of  Pliny. 

To  Vespasian,  the  father  of  Domitian,  who  took  the 
hostile  attitude  just  indicated,  is  due  the  first  public  sup¬ 
port  of  education,  a  fact  shown  in  the  account  of  his  life 
by  Suetonius.  Moreover,  the  letters  of  Pliny  indicate  that 
higher  education  in  the  provincial  cities  was  still  private ; 
and  his  acts,  that,  in  some  cases  at  least,  private  munificence 
came  to  the  assistance  of  such  local  schools  and  that 
there  existed  schools  supported  in  part  by  the  civic  com¬ 
munity.  The  imperial  support  of  higher  education  begun 
by  Vespasian  was  continued  by  Hadrian  (117-138  a.d.) 
and  by  the  Antonines  (138-180  a.d.).  To  Antoninus  Pius 
is  due  the  conferment  of  privileges  upon  the  teaching  pro¬ 
fession,  which  were  afterward  granted  to  the  Christian 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  393 

clergy.  These  privileges  were  extended  to  a  limited  num¬ 
ber  of  grammarians,  rhetoricians,  and  physicians  in  every 
civic  community,  —  a  custom  equivalent  to  the  imperial  in¬ 
dorsement  of  education  throughout  the  Empire.  The  later 
emperors,  especially  Gratian,  made  this  system  of  support 
more  definite. 

An  additional  feature  of  education  during  this  period 
should  be  borne  in  mind.  This  is  the  custom,  then  preva¬ 
lent,  of  sending  Roman  youths  to  Athens  and  other  East¬ 
ern  educational  centres  to  complete  their  schooling,  and  of 
sending  provincial  youths  to  Rome  for  like  reason.  As 
mentioned  in  the  selections,  such  was  the  case  with  Cicero, 
Pliny,  and  perhaps  Juvenal,  on  the  one  hand;  and  with 
Horace  and  Quintilian,  on  the  other.  During  this  period, 
Athens  and  the  Grecian  East  are  still  looked  upon  as  the 
intellectual  and  educational  centre,  the  Roman  culture 
being,  after  all,  but  an  imitation. 

The  Method  of  Education  during  this  period  is  also  indi¬ 
cated  in  these  selections.  The  dominant  principle  of 
Roman  education  during  all  periods  was  simple;  since 
education  was  dominantly  moral  and  practical,  the  method 
was  chiefly  that  of  direct  imitation.  Hence  the  great 
importance  of  the  influence  of  the  parent  in  the  moral 
training  of  the  child  and  the  great  use  of  biography  in  his 
instruction.  This  principle  of  method  was  carried  over 
into  his  literary  education,  and  as  the  higher  types  of 
schools  were  introduced,  it  brought  about  material  modifi¬ 
cations  in  Grecian  methods.  The  Roman  attitude  toward 
method  is  expressed  in  the  very  brief  quotation  from  the 
Epistles  of  Seneca  and  in  the  quotations  from  Horace, 
Juvenal,  and  Pliny.  The  methods  of  instruction  in  the 
rhetorical  schools  are  indicated  in  the  seventh  Satire  of 


394  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Juvenal,  and  also  described  in  the  ninth  Epistle,  Book  VII., 
of  Pliny.  This  subject  is  treated  in  great  detail  in  the 
selections  from  Quintilian  given  later. 

The  Education  of  Women  is  treated  in  the  selections  from 
Musonius,  which,  however,  must  be  taken  as  an  abstract 
discussion  rather  than  a  statement  of  practical  conditions. 
But  the  education  of  women  at  Rome  was  on  a  higher 
plane  than  at  Athens,  for  in  this,  as  in  other  respects,  they 
were  more  nearly  upon  an  equality  with  men.  The 
iufluence  of  cultured  women  upon  the  education  of  their 
children  is  seen  in  the  references  to  the  mother  of  the 
Gracchi  and  the  mother  of  Agricola,  as  well  as  in  the 
Epistle  of  Pliny  to  Correllia  Hispulla.  While  much  greater 
freedom  was  allowed  to  married  women  in  Rome  than  in 
Greece,  and  while  they  were  more  nearly  on  an  equality 
with  their  husbands,  their  education  was  essentially  a  home 
training.  There  are  evidences  that  it  was  nothing  uncom¬ 
mon  for  girls  to  attend  the  Indus ;  but  if  they  aspired 
to  the  literary  or  higher  education  as  was  possible  without 
loss  of  reputation  and  of  influence  of  the  home  as  in 
Greece,  they  obtained  it  through  the  employment  of  tutors. 
There  is  no  definite  place  for  the  education  of  women  in 
the  higher  education  of  the  times. 

The  Decadence  of  Roman  Education  is  a  question  of  rela¬ 
tivity.  Tacitus  and  Juvenal  discuss  its  decline,  the  former 
on  the  intellectual  side,  the  latter  especially  on  the  moral. 
By  the  close  of  the  first  Christian  century  there  is,  to  be  sure, 
decline  in  some  respects,  but  certainly  there  are  advances 
in  others.  Both  decline  and  advance  are  indicated  briefly 
in  these  sources.  Oratory  has  lost  its  great  inspiration 
with  the  change  to  the  Empire,  and  hence  has  become  much 
more  formal  and  artificial ;  the  literature  of  the  period  is 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  395 

great  on  account  of  its  form,  not  on  account  of  its  origi¬ 
nality  or  its  power  of  inspiration  ;  and  in  a  similar  way,  edu¬ 
cation  becomes  formal  and  in  time  artificial.  There  is  also  a 
marked  change  in  the  character  of  Roman  society.  While 
the  change  in  moral  standards,  together  with  luxury  and 
debauchery  in  the  higher  classes,  has  become  permanent, 
the  fatal  weaknesses  of  Roman  society  do  not  appear  until 
later.  This  decline  from  the  high  intellectual  and  moral 
status  of  the  earlier  period  occurs  at  the  time  of  an  exten¬ 
sion  of  the  privileges  of  education  and  an  increased  interest 
in  the  support  of  education  on  the  part  of  the  government 
and  public-spirited  citizens.  This  is  probably  but  another 
evidence  of  the  general  decline  in  virility  and  morality,  for 
it  is  in  order  to  combat  these  tendencies  that  education  is 
encouraged.  There  is  not  only  a  multiplication  of  schools 
and  the  development  of  the  educational  system,  but  also  a 
similar  development  in  the  method  and  workings  of  the 
schools.  This  again  is  taken  by  some  to  be  but  a  further 
evidence  of  the  artificiality  of  the  times.  At  the  same  time 
it  cannot  be  doubted  that,  with  the  loss  of  opportunities  for 
intellectual  activities  in  connection  with  the  affairs  of 
state,  there  was  an  increase  of  interest  in  purely  intel¬ 
lectual  pursuits  along  more  scholastic  lines.  Hence  it  was 
that  the  decline  in  the  character,  motive,  and  moral  results 
of  education  was  coincident  with  a  development  of  educa¬ 
tional  institutions,  the  multiplication  of  libraries,  and  an 
increased  attendance  upon  the  higher  schools.  Now  the 
pursuit  of  the  intellectual  life,  or  the  scholastic  ideals, 
became  a  type  of  life  distinct  in  itself,  resembling  more  the 
Greek  school  of  the  philosophic  period  than  any  approved 
Roman  customs.  The  decline  in  morality  and  spirit  and 
purpose,  marked  by  Juvenal  and  Tacitus,  was  followed  in 


Education 
by  example, 
through  the 
influence  of 
the  father. 


396  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

time  by  a  decline  in  every  other  respect.  With  the  Chris* 
tianization  of  the  Empire  and  the  invasion  of  the  barba¬ 
rians,  education,  which  had  previously  become  wholly 
formal  and  artificial,  ceased  to  arouse  any  enthusiasm  and 
finally  to  command  any  support.  This  final  stage  of 
Roman  education  is  not  represented  in  these  selections. 


Selections  from  the  Satires  of  Horace 
book  1.  4  ( 1 03-1 29) 

If  my  language  is  ever  too  free,  too  playful,  such  an 
amount  of  liberty  you  will  grant  me  in  your  courtesy  :  for 
to  this  my  good  father  trained  me,  to  avoid  each  vice  by 
setting  a  mark  on  it  by  examples.  Whenever  he  would 
exhort  me  to  live  a  thrifty,  frugal  life,  contented  with 
what  he  had  saved  for  me,  he  would  say,  “  Do  you  not  see 
how  hard  it  is  for  the  son  of  Albius  to  live,  and  how  needy 
Barrus  is,  a  signal  warning,  to  prevent  any  one  from 
wasting  his  inheritance.”  If  he  would  deter  me  from 
dishonourable  love,  he  would  say,  “  Do  not  be  like  Sec- 
tanus :  ”  to  save  me  from  an  adulterous  passion,  when  I 
might  enjoy  an  unforbidden  love,  he  used  to  say,  “  Tre- 
bonius’  exposure  was  not  creditable.  A  philosopher  will 
give  you  the  right  reasons  for  shunning  or  choosing  things  ; 
I  am  contented,1  if  I  can  maintain  the  custom  handed 
down  from  our  ancestors,  and,  so  long  as  you  need  a 
guardian,  preserve  your  life  and  character  from  ruin  ;  when 
mature  age  has  strengthened  your  body  and  soul,  then  you 
will  swim  without  a  cork.”  Thus  he  moulded  my  boyhood 
by  these  words,  and  if  he  advised  me  to  any  course  of  con¬ 
duct,  he  would  say,  “  You  have  an  authority  for  so  acting,” 
and  put  before  me  one  of  the  select  judges  ; 2  or  if  he  would 

1  The  poet’s  father  was  of  mean  rank,  and  hence  not  acquainted  with 
philosophical  teachings.  He  was  content  to  bring  up  his  son  according  to 
the  ideas  of  the  earlier  days. 

2  These  judges  were  selected  from  the  most  distinguished  men  of  the  sena¬ 
torial  or  equestrian  rank,  in  the  city  by  the  praetors,  in  the  province  by  the 
governors. 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  397 

forbid  me,  then  said  he,  “  Can  you  possibly  doubt,  whether 
this  is  disreputable  and  injurious,  when  this  man  and  that 
man  are  notorious  for  an  evil  report.  As  the  funeral  of  a 
neighbour  frightens  to  death  the  intemperate  when  sick, 
and,  through  dread  of  their  own  end,  makes  them  careful, 
so  minds  still  docile  are  often  deterred  from  vice  by  the 
disgrace  of  others.” 

1.  6  (65-88) 

And  yet,  if  the  faults  and  defects  of  my  nature  are 
moderate  ones,  and  with  their  exception  my  life  is  upright, 
(just  as  if  one  were  to  censure  blemishes  found  here  and 
there  on  a  handsome  body,)  if  no  one  can  truly  lay  to  my 
charge  avarice,  meanness,  or  frequenting  vicious  haunts, 
if  (that  I  may  praise  myself)  my  life  is  pure  and  innocent, 
and  my  friends  love  me,  I  owe  it  all  to  my  father ;  he, 
though  not  rich,  for  his  farm  was  a  poor  one,  would  not 
send  me  to  the  school  of  Flavius,1  to  which  the  first  youths 
of  the  town,  the  sons  of  the  centurions,  the  great  men 
there,  used  to  go,  with  their  bags2  and  slates3  on  their  left 
arm,  taking  the  teacher’s  fee  on  the  Ides  of  eight  months 
in  the  year  ;  but  he  had  the  spirit 4  to  carry  me,  when  a 
boy,  to  Rome,  there  to  learn  the  liberal  arts  which  any 
knight  or  senator  would  have  his  own  sons  taught.  Had 
any  one  seen  my  dress,  and  the  attendant  servants,  so  far 
as  would  be  observed  in  a  populous  city,  he  would  have 
thought  that  such  expense  was  defrayed  from  an  old 
hereditary  estate.  He  himself  was  ever  present,5 6  a  guar¬ 
dian  incorruptible,  at  all  my  studies.  Why  say  more  ?  My 
modesty,  that  first  grain  of  virtue,  he  preserved  untainted, 
not  only  by  an  actual  stain,  but  by  the  very  rumour  of  it ; 


1  A  schoolmaster  at  Venusia,  the  poet’s  native  place. 

2  Bags  of  counters  for  arithmetical  calculations,  more  frequently  performed 
in  this  way  than  with  characters  as  with  us. 

3  Ciphering  tables.  These  were  covered  with  sand  or  dust,  thus  permitting 
characters  to  be  made. 

4  A  bold  proceeding  for  a  poor  farmer,  when  the  rich  centurions  were  con¬ 

tent  with  provincial  schools. 

6  Instead  of  assigning  him,  as  was  the  custom,  to  the  care  of  a  pedagogue, 
usually  a  family  slave. 


A  father’s 
care  and 
sacrifice  for 
the 

education  of 
his  son. 


Character  of 
early 

education. 


Poetry  the 
substance  of 
early 
literary 
education. 


398  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

not  fearing  that  any  one  hereafter  should  make  this  a 
reproach,  if  as  auctioneer,1  or  collector,  like  himself,  I 
should  follow  a  trade  of  petty  gains ;  nor  should  I  have 
grumbled  at  my  lot ;  but  as  the  case  is  now,  to  him  more 
praise  is  due,  I  owe  him  greater  thanks. 


Selections  from  the  Epistles  of  Horace 
11.  1  (70-75) 

When  I  was  little,2  Orbilius,  my  master,  dictated  to  me 
the  poems  of  Livius ; 3  he  was  fond  of  flogging  me,  but  I 
am  not  dead  set  against  those  poems,  nor  think  they  ought 
to  be  destroyed ;  but  that  they  should  be  considered 
faultless  and  beautiful  and  almost  perfect,  does  aston¬ 
ish  me. 


11.  1  (126-138) 

The  tender  lisping  mouth  of  a  child  the  poet  forms ; 
even  in  their  early  days  he  turns  the  ears  of  the  young 
from  evil  words  ;  presently  he  fashions  the  heart  by  kindly 
precepts,  he  is  the  corrector  of  roughness,  of  malice,  of 
anger ;  he  tells  of  virtuous  deeds,  the  dawn  of  life  he 
furnishes  with  illustrious  examples  ;  the  helpless  and  sad 
of  soul  he  comforts.  Whence  could  the  pious  boys  and 
virgins  learn  their  hymns  of  prayer,  had  not  the  Muse 
granted  us  a  bard  ?  The  chorus  prays  for  aid,  and  Heaven’s 
presence  feels,  and  in  set  form  of  persuasive  prayer  im¬ 
plores  rain  from  above,  averts  disease,  drives  away  dreaded 
dangers,  obtains  peace,  and  a  season  rich  with  its  crops : 
appeased  by  hymns  are  gods  above,  and  gods  below.  4 

1  The  father  of  Horace  became  at  Rome  either  a  tax-gatherer  or  an  officer 
attendant  upon  sales  at  auction,  whose  duty  it  was  to  collect  the  purchase 
money. 

2  Orbilius  Puppillus,  a  native  of  Beneventum,  came  to  teach  at  Rome  in  the 
consulship  of  Cicero.  He  was  noted  for  his  severity. 

3  Livius  Andronicus. 

4  The  poet  in  the  passage  is  enumerating  the  advantages  that  result  from 
his  art. 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education 


399 


Selections  from  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace 

(323-333.)  The  Greeks  had  genius,  the  Greeks  could  Materialistic 
speak  with  well-rounded  mouth  :  this  was  the  Muse’s  gift  ^teeaflsR°omau 
to  them;  they  coveted  nought  but  renown.  But  the  Roman  education, 
boys  are  taught  to  divide  the  as  by  long  calculations  into  a 
hundred  parts.  Supposing  the  son  of  Albinus  says  :  “  If 
from  five  ounces  be  subtracted  one,  what  is  the  remainder  ? 

At  once  you  can  answer,  “  A  third  of  an  as.” 1  “  Good,  you 

will  be  able  to  keep  your  property.  If  an  ounce  be  added, 
what  does  it  make?”  “The  half  of  an  as.”  Ah  !  when 
this  rust  of  copper,  this  slavish  love  of  saving  money  has 
once  imbued  the  soul,  can  we  hope  for  the  composition  of 
verses  worthy  to  be  rubbed  with  oil  of  cedar,  or  to  be  kept 
in  cases  of  polished  cypress  ? 


Selections  from  the  Epigrams  of  Martial 

BOOK  IX. - LXVIII.  TO  THE  MASTER  OF  A  NOISY  SCHOOL 

IN  HIS  NEIGHBOURHOOD 

What  right  have  you  to  disturb  me,  abominable  school¬ 
master,  object  abhorred  alike  by  boys  and  girls  ?  Before 
the  crested  cocks  have  broken  silence,  you  begin  to  roar 
out  your  savage  scoldings  and  blows.  Not  with  louder 
noise  does  the  metal  resound  on  the  struck  anvil,  when 
the  workman  is  fitting  a  lawyer  on  his  horse  ; 2  nor  is  the 
noise  so  great  in  the  large  amphitheatre,  when  the  con¬ 
quering  gladiator  is  applauded  by  his  partisans.  We, 
your  neighbours,  do  not  ask  you  to  allow  us  to  sleep  for 
the  whole  night,  for  it  is  but  a  small  matter  to  be  occasion¬ 
ally  awakened  ;  but  to  be  kept  awake  all  night  is  a  heavy 
affliction.  Dismiss  your  scholars,  brawler,  and  take  as 
much  for  keeping  quiet  as  you  receive  for  making  a  noise. 

1  Originally  a  pound  of  copper,  of  the  value  of  i6|  cents.  It  was  the 
Roman  unit  of  monetary  value. 

2  A  sneer  at  the  equestrian  statues  of  lawyers. 


400  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

BOOK  X.  - LXII.  TO  A  SCHOOLMASTER 

Schoolmaster,  be  indulgent  to  your  simple  scholars ;  if 
you  would  have  many  a  long-haired  youth  resort  to  your 
lectures,  and  the  class  seated  round  your  critical  table  love 
you.  So  may  no  teacher  of  arithmetic,  or  of  swift  writing, 
be  surrounded  by  a  greater  ring  of  pupils.  The  days  are 
bright,  and  glow  under  the  flaming  constellation  of  the 
Lion,  and  fervid  July  is  ripening  the  teeming  harvest. 
Let  the  Scythian  scourge  with  its  formidable  thongs,  such 
as  flogged  Marsyas  of  Cebenae,1  and  the  terrible  cane,  the 
schoolmaster’s  sceptre,  be  laid  aside,  and  sleep  until  the 
Ides  of  October.2  In  summer,  if  boys  preserve  their 
health,  they  do  enough. 


Selection  from  the  Epistles  of  Seneca 
Epistles  xciv.  51 

Method  of  He  must  therefore  be  governed  till  he  begin  to  be  able 

dkecfIOnby  t0  g°vern .  himself.  Children  are  taught  to  form  their 
imitation.  letters,  their  fingers  are  held  and  their  hands  directed  and 
led,  to  teach  them  to  fashion  and  counterfeit  letters ;  then 
are  they  commanded  to  follow  such  and  such  examples, 
and  by  them  to  remodel  their  writings.  So  is  our  mind 
strengthened,  if  it  be  instructed  by  setting  up  some  exam¬ 
ple  after  which  it  may  pattern. 


Selection  from  the  Lives  of  the  First  Twelve  Ccesars ,  by 

C.  Suetonius  Tranquillus 


LIFE  OF  VESPASIAN 


First 
imperial 
support  of 
public 
education. 


XVIII.  He  wasa  great  encouragerof  learning  andlearned 
men.  He  first  appointed  the  Latin  and  Greek  professors  of 
rhetoric  the  yearly  stipend  of  a  hundred  thousand  sesterces3 

1  Reference  to  a  legend  concerning  a  Phrygian  god,  of  the  river  Marsyas. 
Becoming  skilful  upon  the  flute,  Marsyas  challenged  Apollo,  god  of  the  lyre,  to 
a  contest.  The  Muses  declared  Marsyas  vanquished,  and  the  gods  flayed  him. 

2  The  usual  time  for  the  opening  of  the  school  term. 

8  At  this  time  a  sestertius  was  worth  about  five  cents  of  our  money. 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  401 

each  out  of  the  exchequer.  He  was  likewise  extremely  gen¬ 
erous  to  such  as  excelled  in  poetry,  or  even  the  mechanic 
arts,  and  particularly  to  one  that  brushed  up  the  picture  of 
Venus  at  Cos,  and  another  who  repaired  the  Colossus.  A 
mechanic  offering  to  convey  some  huge  pillars  into  the 
Capitol  at  a  small  expense,  he  rewarded  him  very  hand¬ 
somely  for  his  invention,  but  would  not  accept  of  his  ser¬ 
vice,  saying,  “  You  must  allow  me  to  take  care  of  the  poor 
people.” 


Selections  from  Musonius }  on  the  Education  of  Women 


XIX.  The  conversation  having  turned  on  the  question 
whether  people’s  sons  and  daughters  should  receive  the 
same  education,  the  philosopher  (after  referring  to  the  an¬ 
alogy  furnished  by  the  identical  training  received  by  both 
the  males  and  the  females  of  two  of  the  species  of  animals 
employed  by  men  to  render  them  active  service,  horses  and 
dogs)  asks  whether  men  ought  to  receive  any  special  educa¬ 
tion  and  training  superior  to  those  allowed  to  women,  as  if 
both  alike  should  not  acquire  the  same  virtues,  or  if  it  is  pos¬ 
sible  for  the  two  sexes  to  attain  to  the  same  virtues  otherwise 
than  by  the  same  education.  But  it  is  easy  to  learn  that  a 
man  has  not  different  virtues  from  a  woman.  For,  first, 
the  one  should  have  good  sense  as  well  as  the  other ;  for 
of  what  use  would  either  a  foolish  man  or  a  foolish  woman 
be  ?  Then  the  man  could  not  be  a  good  citizen  if  he  were 
unjust.  And  the  woman  could  not  carry  on  the  concerns 
of  the  household  virtuously  if  not  being  just,  but  the  con¬ 
trary,  she  should  first  wrong  her  husband,  as  they  say 
Eriphyle1 2  did.  It  is  also  good  that  the  woman  as  well  as 
the  man  should  be  self-controlled.  .  .  .  Perhaps  some  one 
would  say  that  courage  is  a  quality  befitting  men  alone ; 
but  even  this  is  not  so,  for  the  best  woman  also  should  be 


Should 
women  have 
the  same 
education 
as  men? 


The  same 
virtues  are 
required  of 
each. 


1  I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Laurie’s  Historical  Survey  of  Pre-Christian 
Education  for  this  reference.  The  translation  is  by  Professor  Muir  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh. 

2  Of  Greek  mythology.  Bribed  by  the  gift  of  a  necklace,  she  persuaded 
her  husband  to  take  part  in  the  war  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  in  which  he 
lost  his  life.  In  revenge  for  this,  she  was  slain  by  her  son. 


2  D 


402  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Then  the 
same 

education 
must  be 
suitable  to 
both. 


Each  should 
have  tasks 
suited  to  his 
nature. 


courageous,  and  be  free  from  weakness,  so  that  she  may 
not  be  overcome  either  by  toil  or  by  fear.  Otherwise  how 
can  she  continue  virtuous,  if  any  one  either  by  terror  or  by 
imposing  toil  can  force  her  to  submit  to  anything  disgrace¬ 
ful  ?  Women  ought  also  to  repel  assaults,  for  if  not  they 
will  show  themselves  weaker  than  hens,  and  the  females 
of  other  birds,  which  fight  for  their  young  against  animals 
much  bigger  than  themselves.  How,  then,  should  woman 
not  stand  in  need  of  courage  ?  And  that  they  share  a  cer¬ 
tain  martial  vigour  was  proved  by  the  race  of  the  Amazons, 
who  subdued  many  nations  by  force  of  arms.  So  that  if 
other  women  are  deficient  in  courage,  this  must  be  laid  to 
the  account  of  want  of  training  rather  than  to  (weakness 
of)  nature.  If,  then,  the  same  virtues  must  pertain  to 
men  and  women,  it  follows  necessarily  that  the  same  train¬ 
ing  and  education  must  be  suitable  for  both.  For  in  the 
case  of  all  animals  and  plants,  the  application  of  the 
proper  treatment  ought  to  impart  to  each  the  excellence 
belonging  to  it.  Or,  if  both  men  and  women  should  have 
to  possess  equal  skill  in  playing  the  flute,  or  in  performing 
on  the  harp,  and  if  this  were  necessary  for  their  livelihood, 
we  should  impart  to  both  equally  the  requisite  instruction. 
But  if  both  ought  to  excel  in  the  virtue  proper  to  mankind, 
and  to  be  in  an  equal  measure  wise  and  temperate,  and  to 
partake  in  courage  and  righteousness  the  one  no  less  than 
the  other,  shall  we  not  educate  them  both  in  the  same 
manner,  and  teach  both  equally  the  art  by  which  a  human 
being  may  become  good  ?  Yes,  we  must  act  thus  and  no 
otherwise.  What  then  ?  Some  one  will  perhaps  say, 
Would  you  think  it  right  to  teach  men  to  spin  wool  just 
as  you  do  women  ?  and  women  equally  with  men  to 
addict  themselves  to  gymnastic  exercises  ?  No,  this  I 
will  never  approve.  But  I  say  that  as  in  the  human 
race  men  have  a  stronger  and  women  a  weaker  nature, 
each  of  these  natures  should  have  the  tasks  which  are 
most  suited  to  it,  assigned  to  it,  and  that  the  heavier  should 
be  allotted  to  the  stronger,  and  the  lighter  to  the  weaker. 
Spinning,  as  well  as  housekeeping,  would  therefore  be 
more  suitable  for  women  than  for  men,  while  gymnastics, 
as  well  as  out  of  door  work,  would  be  fitter  for  men  than 
for  women :  though  sometimes  some  men  might  properly 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  403 

undertake  some  of  the  lighter  tasks  and  such  as  seem  to 
belong  to  women  ;  and  women  again  might  engage  in  the 
harder  tasks,  and  those  which  appear  more  appropriate  for 
men,  in  cases  where  either  bodily  qualities,  or  necessity,  or 
particular  occasions,  might  lead  to  such  action.  For  per¬ 
haps  all  human  tasks  are  open  to  all,  and  common  both  to 
men  and  women,  and  nothing  is  necessarily  appointed  ex¬ 
clusively  for  either ;  not  that  some  things  may  not  be  more 
suitable  for  the  one,  and  others  for  the  other  nature ;  so 
that  some  are  called  men’s  and  others  women’s  occupa¬ 
tions.  But  whatever  things  have  reference  to  virtue,  these 
one  may  rightly  affirm  to  be  equally  appropriate  for  both 
natures,  since  we  say  that  virtues  do  not  belong  more  to 
the  one  than  to  the  other.  Wherefore  I  think  it  is  rea¬ 
sonable  that  both  males  and  females  should  be  similarly 
instructed  in  matters  relating  to  virtue ;  and  they  should 
be  taught  from  their  infancy  that  such  and  such  a  thing  is 
good,  and  such  and  such  a  thing  is  bad  (the  same  thing 
bad  for  both)  and  that  one  thing  is  profitable  and  another 
injurious,  and  that  this  is  to  be  done  and  that  not;  from 
which  wisdom  is  acquired  by  those  who  learn,  by  boys  and 
girls  equally,  and  in  no  way  differently  by  each  ;  then  they 
are  to  be  inspired  with  a  feeling  of  shame  in  regard  to 
everything  base.  These  qualities  being  implanted  in  them, 
it  necessarily  follows  that  both  men  and  women  will  be¬ 
come  virtuous.  And  those  who  are  rightly  instructed, 
whether  males  or  females,  are  to  be  accustomed  to  endure 
toil,  not  to  fear  death,  not  to  be  crushed  by  any  calamity, 
so  that  they  may  become  courageous  (or  manly)  ;  for  it  has 
been  shown  above  that  women  too  should  partake  in  the 
character  of  courage  (or  manliness).  Then  again,  it  is  an 
excellent  thing  to  teach  them  to  avoid  selfishness  and  to 
honour  equality,  and,  as  human  beings,  to  seek  to  benefit 
and  not  to  injure  mankind ;  and  such  instruction  renders 
those  who  receive  it  just.  But  why  should  a  man  learn 
these  things  more  than  a  woman  ?  For  if  it  is  fitting  that 
women  should  be  just,  then  both  sexes  should  be  taught 
these  things  which  are  most  seasonable  and  most  impor¬ 
tant.  For  if  the  man  should  know  some  little  matter  con¬ 
nected  with  some  artist’s  department,  and  the  woman  not, 
or  conversely,  this  will  not  prove  the  education  of  each  to 


Hence 
women 
should  have 
the  lighter 
tasks. 


But  the 
virtues  be¬ 
long  equally 
to  both. 


Early 
education 
should  be 
the  same  for 
both. 


404  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Should  be  ' 
chiefly 
moral. 


Have  the 
same  rea¬ 
son;  hence 
women 
should  study 
philosophy. 


Practical 
aspect  of 
the  philo¬ 
sophical 
education. 


be  different.  Only,  as  regards  any  of  the  most  important 
matters  let  not  the  one  be  taught  differently  from  the  other. 
If  anyone  asks  me  what  science  is  to  preside  over  this  in¬ 
struction  I  shall  reply  that  as  without  philosophy  no  man 
can  be  rightly  instructed,  so  neither  can  any  woman.  But 
I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  if  women  are  to  philosophise 
they  ought  properly  to  possess  fluency  and  extraordinary 
cleverness  in  discussion ;  for  I  do  not  praise  this  very 
much  even  in  men  ;  but  I  mean  that  women  should  acquire 
a  virtuous  character  and  nobleness,  since  philosophy  is  the 
pursuit  of  a  noble  character,  and  nothing  else. 

.  .  .  And  when  one  asked  him  if  women  too  should 
study  philosophy,  he  began,  somewhat  in  this  way,  to 
teach  that  they  should.  Women,  he  said,  have  received 
from  the  gods  the  same  reason  as  men,  the  reason  which 
we  use  in  dealing  with  each  other,  and  by  which  we  dis¬ 
cern,  in  regard  to  each  act,  whether  it  is  good  or  bad,  noble 
or  base.  So,  too,  the  female  has  the  same  perceptions  as 
the  male  —  seeing,  hearing,  smelling,  and  so  forth.  .  .  . 
So,  too,  not  only  men,  but  women  also,  have  by  nature  the 
desire  and  the  adaptation  for  virtue ;  for  the  latter,  no  less 
than  the  former,  are  so  formed  as  to  be  pleased  with  noble 
and  righteous  actions  and  to  disapprove  the  contraries  of 
these.  This  being  the  case,  why  should  it  belong  to  men 
principally  to  inquire  and  consider  how  they  shall  live 
nobly  —  which  is  the  province  of  philosophy — and  not 
principally  to  women  ?  Is  it  because  it  is  fitting  for  men 
to  be  good,  and  not  for  women  ?  But  let  us  inquire  in 
regard  to  every  particular  quality  suitable  for  a  woman  who 
shall  be  good ;  for  it  will  appear  that  she  will  derive  each 
of  these  characteristics  principally  from  philosophy.  First, 
a  woman  ought  to  be  a  good  housekeeper,  and  capable  of 
judging  what  things  are  expedient  for  the  house,  and  quali¬ 
fied  to  rule  the  domestics.  Now,  I  say  that  such  qualities 
would  belong  most  to  a  woman  who  studied  philosophy, 
since  each  of  these  things  is  a  part  of  life,  and  the  science 
of  matters  regarding  life  is  nothing  else  than  philosophy, 
and  the  philosopher,  as  Socrates  said,  continues  inquiring 
“what  things,  good  or  bad,  are  done  in  the  house.”  But 
the  woman  should  further  be  self-controlled,  so  as  to  keep 
herself  pure  .  .  .  not  to  be  the  slave  of  desires,  nor 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  405 


quarrelsome,  nor  extravagant,  nor  fond  of  dress.  These 
are  the  works  of  a  virtuous  woman  ;  and,  in  addition,  she 
should  control  anger,  not  give  way  to  grief,  be  superior  to 
all  passion.  These  things  philosophy  enjoins,  and  it  ap¬ 
pears  to  me  that  anyone,  whether  man  or  woman,  who 
should  learn  and  practise  them,  would  be  a  most  correct 
person.  What  then  ?  These  things  are  so.  Is  not,  there¬ 
fore,  a  woman  justified  in  studying  philosophy,  in  being  a 
blameless  partner  of  (her  husband’s)  life,  a  good  helpmeet  in 
housekeeping,  a  careful  guardian  of  her  husband  and  chil¬ 
dren,  and  in  every  way  free  from  the  love  of  gain  and  from 
selfishness  ?  And  what  woman  would  possess  this  char¬ 
acter  more  than  the  student  of  philosophy,  who  would  be 
bound,  if  philosophy  is  uniform  (?  in  its  effects)  to  esteem 
the  doing  worse  than  the  suffering  of  injustice  —  insomuch 
as  it  is  more  disgraceful  —  and  to  regard  being  worsted  as 
better  than  gaining  an  advantage,  and  to  love  her  children 
more  than  (her  own)  life  ?  And  what  woman  would  be 
juster  than  she  who  possessed  such  a  character  ?  And  it 
befits  the  educated  woman  to  be  more  courageous  than  the 
uneducated,  and  the  student  of  philosophy  than  she  who  is 
untrained  in  it,  so  that  she  would  neither  submit  to  any¬ 
thing  disgraceful  from  the  fear  of  death,  or  through  shrink¬ 
ing  from  toil,  nor  succumb  to  anyone  because  he  was  well 
born,  or  powerful,  or  rich,  or  even  a  tyrant.  For  it  is  her 
fortune  to  have  studied  to  be  high-minded,  and  to  regard 
death  as  not  an  evil,  and  life  as  not  a  good,  and  similarly 
not  to  turn  away  from  toil,  or  at  all  to  indulge  in  indolence. 
Whence  it  is  to  be  expected  that  such  a  woman  would  work 
with  her  own  hands,  and  submit  to  toil,  should  be  able  her¬ 
self  to  suckle  the  infants  to  whom  she  gave  birth,  and 
minister  to  her  husband  with  her  own  hands,  and  fulfil 
without  reluctance  tasks  which  some  consider  as  work  only 
fit  for  slaves.  Would  not,  now,  such  a  woman  be  a  great 
treasure  for  her  husband,  an  ornament  to  her  relatives, 
and  a  good  example  to  those  of  her  own  sex  who  knew  her  ? 

But  some  will  say  that  the  women  who  visit  philosophers 
must  generally  become  bold  and  presuming  when,  leaving 
their  household  occupations,  they  live  surrounded  by  men, 
and  practise  discussions,  and  argue  subtly,  and  analyse 
syllogisms,  while  they  ought  to  be  sitting  at  home  spinning. 


The  higher 
aspects  of 
the  philo¬ 
sophical 
education. 


Such 

education 
does  not 
destroy 
woman¬ 
hood. 


406  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Depends 
upon  the 
kind  of 
philosophy. 


The  occasion 
for  the 
letter. 


But  I  am  so  far  from  approving  of  women  who  are  study¬ 
ing  philosophy  leaving  their  proper  avocations  and  devot¬ 
ing  themselves  solely  to  discussions,  that  I  should  not  even  * 
think  it  fit  for  men  to  do  this.  But  I  say  that  they  ought 
to  engage  in  all  the'  reasonings  with  which  they  occupy 
themselves  for  the  sake  of  their  avocations.  For  as  medi¬ 
cal  speculations  are  useless  unless  they  conduce  to  the 
health  of  the  human  body,  so  if  a  philosopher  holds  or 
inculcates  any  doctrine,  it  is  of  no  value  unless  it  promote 
the  virtue  of  the  human  soul.  But,  above  all  things,  we 
ought  to  weigh  the  principles  which  we  think  that  women 
studying  philosophy  should  follow,  so  as  to  form  a  judg¬ 
ment  whether  the  doctrine  that  teaches  that  modesty  is  the 
greatest  good  can  make  women  bold,  or  whether  that 
which  inculcates  the  greatest  composure  can  accustom 
them  to  live  recklessly  (or  impudently),  or  that  which 
shows  vice  to  be  the  greatest  evil  does  not  teach  virtuous 
self-restraint,  or  that  which  represents  housekeeping  as 
a  virtue,  and  exhorts  a  woman  to  be  satisfied  with  it  and 
to  work  with  her  own  hands,  does  not  dispose  a  woman 
to  practise  household  occupations. 


Selections  from  the  Epistles  of  Pliny  the  Younger 

BOOK  I.,  EPISTLE  VIII.  TO  POMPEIUS  SATURNINUS 

Your  letters,  in  which  you  importuned  me  to  send  some 
of  my  writings  to  you,  came  very  seasonably.  For,  I  was 
just  then  fully  determined  in  that  point:1  you  have  there¬ 
fore  given  the  spur  to  a  very  willing  racer,  and  have  at 
once  saved  yourself  the  excuse  of  refusing  such  a  trouble, 
and  me  the  awkward  bashfulness  of  asking  it.  I  think, 
I  may  now  confidently  use  the  offer,  that  is  made  me ; 
neither  can  you  for  shame  shrink  back  from  your  own 
proposal :  however  expect  not  anything  new  from  a  man 
so  indolent  as  I  am.  What  I  am  going  to  ask  you,  is  to 
pass  your  judgment  once  more  upon  that  speech,  which 
I  made  to  my  fellow-citizens,  when  I  dedicated  a  public 

1  Pliny  made  a  practice  of  securing  the  critical  examination  of  each  piece 
of  literary  work  by  his  friends  before  its  publication. 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  407 

library  to  their  use.1 2  I  remember,  you  then  gave  me  some 
criticisms  upon  it  in  general ;  but  my  present  request  is, 
that  you  would  not  only  give  a  strict  attention  to  the  whole, 
but  that  you  will  not  let  a  single  syllable  escape  your  most 
minute  correction;  for  even  after  your  emendations,  I 
shall  still  be  at  liberty,  either  to  publish,  or  suppress. 

However,  your  corrections  may  possibly  determine  me; 
and  your  pen,  by  frequently  going  over  the  work,  may 
either  find  it  unworthy  and  unfit  for  the  public,  or,  by  the 
same  means,  give  it  another  turn,  and  make  it  fit  to  appear. 

But  I  must  own,  that  the  motives  of  my  delays  and  appre-  Its 
hensions  arise  not  so  much  from  the  speech  itself,  as  from 
the  subject  of  it;  for  certainly  it  is  too  full  of  vanity;  found  in  the 
because  I  must  inevitably  wound  my  modesty  (be  my  private 
expressions  never  so  condescending  and  humble)  when  I 
am  obliged  to  set  forth,  not  only  the  munificence  of  my  librafy- 
ancestors,  but  my  own  generosity  also.  The  path  is  dan¬ 
gerous  and  slippery,  even  although  a  man  were  seduced 
into  it  by  the  most  urging  necessity.  For,  if  an  unwilling 
ear  is  lent  to  the  praises  we  bestow  upon .  others,  how 
much  more  difficult  will  it  be  to  obtain  a  patient  hearing, 
when  our  whole  discourse  is  about  ourselves  and  our  rela¬ 
tions  ?  If  virtue,  when  naked,  is  envied,  it  will  be  more 
so,  when  set  off  in  any  ostentatious  manner.  .  In  short, 
good  deeds  can  only  escape  censure,  by  being  buried 
in  obscurity  and  silence.  For  which  reason,  I  have  often 
asked  my  own  conscience,  Is  this  composition  of  mine 
merely  for  my  own  vanity  ;  or  is  it  not  as  much  for  the 
use  of  the  public  in  general,  as  for  myself  ? 

Another  reflection,  that  occurs  to  me,  is,  that  many 
things,  which  are  necessary  whilst  we  are  performing  an 

1  The  occasion  spoken  of  gives  the  educational  significance  of  the  letter. 

Pliny  had  given  to  the  people  of  Comum,  his  native  city,  a  public  library, 
which  was  to  be  open  at  all  times  to  all  classes.  The  gift  was  accom¬ 
panied  by  a  speech  setting  forth  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  the  use  of 
a  library.  It  is  to  this  speech  that  the  letter  refers. 

2  The  modesty  of  the  letter  is  supported  by  his  calling  his  generosity  an 
imitation  of  his  ancestors,  though  this  is  hardly  a  Roman  custom;  and  by  the 
character  of  the  presentation  speech  at  the  time  of  the  gift,  being  made,  as  it 
was,  to  the  decurions  alone. 


Its  chief 
topic  the 
character 
of  true 
generosity. 


The  founda¬ 
tion  of 
scholarships 
replaces 
public  games 
and  shows. 


408  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

action,  must  lose  their  usefulness  and  their  grace,  the 
moment  that  action  is  performed.  And  not  to  go  farther 
for  examples,  what  could  be  more  useful  than  to  explain 
the  grounds  and  motives  of  my  liberality,  and  even  to  make 
it  the  subject  of  a  discourse  ?  From  whence  these  ad¬ 
vantages  resulted  ;  first  our  attention  was  for  some  time 
engaged  in  a  series  of  virtuous  and  liberal  thoughts  ;  and 
then  again,  by  dwelling  long  upon  them,  we  became  thor¬ 
oughly  acquainted  with  their  beauties ;  and  lastly,  we 
were  secured  from  the  uneasiness  of  that  repentance,  which 
is  the  certain  consequence  of  a  rash  and  overhasty  munifi¬ 
cence.  Hence  too  we  were  in  a  manner  brought  to  a 
habit  of  despising  money ;  for  as  nature  has  instilled  into 
all  men  a  desire  of  keeping  what  they  have,  we,  whose 
love  of  liberality  proceeded  from  having  long  and  well 
weighed  that  virtue  in  the  equal  balance  of  judgment  and 
reflection,  released  ourselves  from  those  chains,  common 
as  they  are  to  the  rest  of  mankind ;  and  our  generosity 
was  likely  to  appear  the  more  to  our  honour,  as  it  was  the 
effect  of  reason,  and  not  the  sallies  of  whim  and  passion. 
To  these  arguments  may  be  farther  added,  that  I  did  not 
exhibit  games  or  gladiators ; 1  but,  in  their  stead,  established 
an  annual  income  for  the  maintenance  of  young  persons 
of  good  families  and  small  fortunes.  Pleasures,  that  are 
merely  for  the  entertainment  of  the  eyes  and  ears,  are  so 
far  from  wanting  commendation,  that  they  ought  rather 
to  be  restrained  than  to  be  encouraged  by  public  speeches. 
To  induce  a  man  to  undergo  the  irksomeness  and  fatigue 
of  education,  not  only  gifts,  but  the  most  enticing  eloquence 
is  necessary  :  for  if  physicians,  by  kind  and  gentle  language, 
persuade  their  patients  to  swallow  down  their  nauseous, 
yet  wholesome  medicines  ;  how  much  more  ought  a  true 
lover  of  the  public,  to  use  all  the  soft  bewitching  arts  of 
oratory,  when  he  exhibits  an  entertainment  not  so  accept¬ 
able  as  useful  to  the  people?  especially,  when  it  was  my 
business  to  endeavour,  that  what  was  given  to  those,  who 

1  On  all  such  public  occasions  it  was  customary  to  institute  games  and 
exhibit  shows  in  order  to  increase  the  solemnity  of  the  public  benefaction. 
Pliny  departed  from  this  custom  and  devoted  the  money  as  above  indicated, 
thus  giving  the  second  educational  significance  to  this  letter. 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  .  409 

had  children,  should  be  approved  of  by  those,  who  had 
none ;  and  that  the  many  others,  who  must  be  excluded 
from  an  honour,  which  could  be  enjoyed  only  by  few,  should 
patiently  wait  in  expectation  of  that  honour,  and  try  to 
deserve  it. 

But,  as  at  the  time  I  spoke  this  speech,  I  studied  more 
the  public  advantage,  than  my  own  private  reputation,  in 
showing  how  desirous  I  was,  that  the  full  intention  and 
design  of  my  benefaction  should  be  thoroughly  understood 
and  take  effect  accordingly ;  so  now  I  am  afraid,  by  send¬ 
ing  it  into  the  world,  I  shall  appear  to  have  my  own  glory 
more  in  view,  than  any  advantage  that  can  accrue  to  other 
people.  Besides  all  this,  I  cannot  forget,  that  the  con¬ 
sciousness  of  virtue  gives  more  real  pleasure,  than  the  fame 
of  it. 

Glory  should  follow,  not  be  pursued  :  and  though  merit 
may  not  always  be  crowned  with  glory,  her  charms  are  not 
the  less  from  that  misfortune.  But  the  persons,  who  do 
public  benefits,  and  afterwards  set  them  off  by  public 
speeches,  seem  to  have  done  them,  that  they  might  be 
spoken  of,  not  to  speak  of  them,  because  they  had  been 
done.  By  which  means  a  performance,  that  might  appear 
highly  magnificent,  when  related  by  another,  vanishes  to 
nothing,  when  set  forth  by  the  author  himself.  For  when 
people  cannot  destroy  the  action,  they  immediately  attack 
the  vanity  of  it :  so  that  if  you  do  a  thing,  that  ought  to  be 
concealed,  the  action  is  blamed ;  and  if  you  do  a  thing, 
that  ought  to  be  praised,  you  are  blamed  for  not  conceal¬ 
ing  it. 

There  is  yet  another  very  particular  reason,  which  de¬ 
ters  me  from  making  this  oration  public  :  for  I  did  not 
speak  it  to  the  people,  but  I  spoke  it  to  the  Decurions,1 
nor  to  them  openly,  and  in  the  sight  of  the  world,  but  pri¬ 
vately  in  their  own  court.2  I  fear  therefore  it  will  seem 

1  Senators  of  the  corporate  cities  of  Italy.  They  had  a  share  in  the  elec¬ 
tion  of  Roman  magistrates,  and  thus  these  cities  participated  in  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  Republic  and  Empire.  Comum  had  been  made  a  Roman  colony 
by  Scipio. 

2  As  Pliny’s  bounty  has  been  intended  for  the  public  benefit,  it  was  neces¬ 
sary  for  him  to  register  the  act  before  the  decurions. 


On  the 
selection  of 
a  teacher. 


410  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

inconsistent,  that  at  the  time  I  spoke  it  I  should  fly  from 
the  applauses  and  acclamations  of  the  multitude,  and 
should  now  run  after  those  applauses  and  acclamations  by 
publishing  the  work :  and  that  I  should  then  keep  out  the 
people,  for  whom  it  was  designed,  even  from  the  walls  of 
the  court,  merely  to  avoid  the  least  show  of  ambition,  and 
should  now,  as  it  were  by  a  voluntary  piece  of  ostentation, 
try  to  gain  those  very  people,  who  can  really  reap  no  other 
benefit  from  my  gift,  than  what  may  arise  from  the  exam¬ 
ple  of  it. 

You  are  now  told  the  causes  of  my  delay :  however,  I 
will  follow  your  advice,  be  it  what  it  will ;  and  your  author¬ 
ity  shall  be  a  sufficient  reason  for  my  actions.  Farewell. 


BOOK  HI.,  EPISTLE  III.  TO  CORRELLIA  HISPULLA 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether  my  love  or  esteem 
were  greater,  for  that  wise  and  excellent  man  your  father, 
while  from  the  respect  I  bear  to  his  memory  and  your  virtues, 
you  are  exceedingly  dear  to  me.  Can  I  fail  then  to  wish 
(as  I  shall,  by  every  means  in  my  power,  endeavour)  that 
your  son  may  resemble  his  grandfather  ?  Myself,  I  should 
prefer  his  being  like  his  grandfather  on  the  mother’s  side, 
though  the  one  on  the  father’s  as  well  was  a  man  of  mark 
and  worth,  his  father  and  his  uncle  too  will  furnish  him 
with  illustrious  examples.  Now  the  surest  way  of  training 
him  up  in  the  steps  of  such  men  is  to  give  him  a  good, 
sound,  liberal  education,  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
from  whom  he  receives  this.  Hitherto,  owing  to  his  early 
years,  he  has  been  brought  up  under  your  eye,  and  in  your 
house,  where  he  is  exposed  to  few,  I  should  rather  say  to 
no,  wrong  impressions.  But  he  is  now  of  an  age  to  be 
sent  from  home,  and  it  is  time  to  place  him  with  some  pro¬ 
fessor  of  rhetoric;  of  whose  discipline  and  method,  modesty, 
but,  above  all,  purity  and  uprightness,  you  may  be  well 
satisfied.  Amongst  the  many  advantages  for  which  our 
young  man  is  indebted  to  nature  and  fortune,  he  has  that 
of  a  most  beautiful  person :  it  is  necessary  therefore,  in 
this  loose  and  slippery  age,  to  find  out  one  who  will  not 
only  be  his  tutor,  but  guardian  and  governor  as  well.  I 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  4 1 1 

will  venture  to  recommend  Julius  Genitor  to  you  under  that 
character.  I  am  fond  of  him,  it  is  true :  but  my  affection 
by  no  means  prejudices  my  judgment ;  on  the  contrary,  it 
is,  actually,  the  effect  of  it.  His  behaviour  is  grave,  and 
his  morals  are  irreproachable ;  perhaps  somewhat  too 
severe  and  rigid  for  the  libertine  manners  of  these  times. 
His  professional  qualifications  you  may  learn  from  many 
others,  for  the  gift  of  eloquence,  as  it  is  open  to  all  the 
world,  is  soon  perceived :  but  the  qualities  of  the  heart  lie 
in  deeper  recesses,  more  out  of  the  reach  of  common  ob¬ 
servation  ;  and  it  is  on  that  side  I  undertake  to  answer  for 
my  friend.  Your  son  will  hear  nothing  from  this  worthy 
man  but  what  will  be  to  his  advantage  to  know,  nor  will  he 
learn  anything  of  which  it  would  be  better  he  were  igno¬ 
rant.  He  will  remind  him  as  often,  and  with  as  much  zeal 
as  you  or  I  should,  of  the  virtues  of  his  ancestors,  and 
what  a  glorious  weight  of  illustrious  characters  he  has  to 
support.  You  will  not  hesitate  then  to  place  him  with  a 
tutor  whose  first  care  will  be  to  form  his  morals  and  after 
that  to  instruct  him  in  eloquence  ;  an  attainment  ill  acquired 
if  to  the  neglect  of  his  moral  culture.  Farewell. 

BOOK  IV.,  EPISTLE  XIII.  TO  CORNELIUS  TACITUS 1 

I  am  extremely  glad  to  hear  you  are  come  safe  to  town. 
Your  arrival,  though  always  desirable,  is  at  this  time  more 
particularly  welcome.  I  shall  still  stay  some  few  days  in 
Tusculum,  that  I  may  finish  a  small  work  which  I  have  in 
hand ;  for  I  am  afraid,  if  I  should  now  break  off  my  pur¬ 
suit,  just  when  I  have  brought  it  near  an  end,  I  should  find 
a  difficulty  in  taking  it  up  again.  In  the  mean  while,  that 
I  may  lose  no  time,  I  write  this  precursory  letter,  to  inti¬ 
mate  a  request,  which  I  must  urge  personally  when  we 
meet.  But  first  hear  the  reason  of  my  asking,  and  then 
what  it  is  I  ask. 

When  I  was  last  in  my  own  country,2  a  son  of  one  of  my 
fellow-citizens  came  to  see  me.  I  asked  him,  “  Do  you 

1  The  historian;  a  contemporary  of  Pliny.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth  is 
unknown,  though  he  was  a  few  days  older  than  Pliny,  who  was  born  61  A.D. 

2  Comum. 


412  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

Local  study  ?  ”  He  answered  :  “  Yes.”  “  Where  ?  ”  “  At  Medi- 

support  edbe  olanum-”  1  “  Why  not  here?”  To  which  his  father  an- 

by  endow-  swered  (for  his  father  was  with  him,  and  had  introduced 
ments  from  the  youth  to  me),  “  Because  we  have  no  preceptors  here.”  2 

benefactions  “  Wh^  ^aVe  >"0U  n0t  ?  f°r  ^  mUch  concernS  you  who  are 
instead  of  fathers  ”  (and  many  parents  happened  luckily  to  be  pres- 

by  tuition  ent),  “  to  have  your  sons  educated  here,  preferably  to  any 

aione.  other  place.  For  where  can  they  reside  more  to  their  sat¬ 

isfaction,  than  in  their  native  country  ?  Where  can  they 
be  bred  up  more  virtuously,  than  under  the  eye  of  their 
parents  ?  or  with  less  expense,  than  at  home  ?  Upon  what 
easy  conditions  might  you  have  preceptors  brought  hither  ? 
What  a  small  additional  expense  must  you  be  at,  above 
what  it  already  costs  you  in  your  children’s  lodgings,  diet, 
and  other  necessaries,  which  are  now  all  bought  abroad  ? 
For  my  part,  I,  who  have  no  children,  but  consider  my 
country  as  my  child  or  my  parent,  am  ready  to  contribute 
a  third  part  of  the  sum,  which  you  shall  think  proper  to 
establish  upon  this  occasion.  I  would  even  promise  to  be  at 
the  whole  expense,  did  I  not  fear  that  such  a  donation  might 
be  corrupted,  and  made  to  serve  private  interests  :  Which  I 
see  happen  in  many  places,  where  preceptors  are  chosen 
by  the  public.  There  is  but  this  one  remedy  to  obviate 
the  evil.  If  the  right  of  choice  be  left  entirely  to  the  par¬ 
ents,  their  care,  in  that  choice,  will  be  still  augmented,  by 
the  necessity  they  are  under  of  contributing  towards  it  : 
For  those,  who  perhaps  would  be  negligent  in  other  peo¬ 
ple’s  expenses,  will  certainly  be  careful  in  their  own :  and 
will  us e  their  utmost  endeavours,  that  the  person,  who  is  to 
receive  his  salary  from  me,  shall  be  worthy  of  it,  because 
their  own  share  is  likewise  to  be  paid.  Therefore  consult, 
and  come  to  some  determination  among  yourselves,  and 
let  my  example  inspire  you,  and  be  assured,  that  the  larger 
my  part  of  the  contribution  shall  be,  the  better  I  shall  be 
pleased.  You  can  do  nothing  more  honourable  for  your 


1  Milan. 

2  The  custom  of  giving  imperial  support  to  provincial  schools  did  not  grow 
up  until  late  in  the  second  Christian  century,  under  the  Antonines.  At  the 
time  of  Pliny  (iioa.d.)  such  schools  were  supported  either  by  the  munici¬ 
pality  or  by  tuition.  Municipal  support,  however,  was  not  common. 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  413 

children  ;  nothing  more  grateful  to  your  country.  Let 
those,  who  are  born  here,  be  educated  here  ;  that  from  their 
infancy  they  may  love  their  native  soil,  by  living  on  it. 
And  I  wish  you  could  draw  hither  such  eminent  masters, 
as  should  make  the  studies  here  sought  after  by  neighbour¬ 
ing  cities  ;  so  that,  as  your  children  are  now  sent  to  other 
places,  other  people’s  children  may,  hereafter,  resort  to 
this.” 

I  thought  it  necessary  to  repeat  this  conversation  circum¬ 
stantially,  and  from  the  beginning  ;  that  you  may  the  bet¬ 
ter  judge  how  grateful  it  would  be  to  me,  if  you  will 
undertake  what  I  enjoin.  For  the  importance  of  the 
affair  makes  me  both  enjoin,  and  entreat  you,  that  out  of 
the  numerous  concourse  of  learned  men,  who  assemble 
about  you,  from  an  admiration  of  your  great  abilities,  you 
would  look  out  some  masters  worth  soliciting  :  With  this 
reserve  however,  that  I  shall  not  be  tied  down  to  any  par¬ 
ticular  man  :  for  I  leave  the  parents  at  full  liberty :  let 
them  judge  ;  let  them  choose  ;  I  lay  claim  to  nothing  but 
the  care  and  expense.  Therefore  if  one  should  be  found, 
who  relies  on  his  own  genius,  sufficiently  for  the  task,  let 
him  go  thither,  under  this  restriction,  that  he  builds  upon 
no  certainty,  but  his  own  abilities.  Farewell. 

BOOK  VII.,  EPISTLE  IX.  TO  CORNELIUS  FUSCUS 

You  wish  to  know  from  me,  in  what  method  you  ought 
to  pursue  your  studies,  while  you  remain,  as  you  have  long 
been,  retired  in  the  country.  The  most  useful  method,  and 
as  many  think,  the  most  preferable,  is  translation  either 
from  Greek  into  Latin,  or  from  Latin  into  Greek.  By  this 
kind  of  exercise  are  to  be  acquired  the  propriety  and 
beauty  of  expression,  the  extent  of  figures,  the  power  of 
explanation,  besides  a  facility  of  imitating  the  best  authors, 
so  as  to  fall  into  the  same  turn  of  thought.  Those  circum¬ 
stances,  which  may  not  strike  a  reader,  cannot  possibly 
escape  a  translator.  Knowledge  and  judgment  are  both 
acquired  by  translation.  As  soon  as  you  have  read  a  book, 
by  way  of  emulation,  you  may  undertake  the  same  argument, 
and  subject  matter;  comparing  and  carefully  weighing 
your  own  performance  with  the  book,  which  you  have  read  : 


Public  inter* 
est  to  be 
aroused. 


Choice  of 
teachers. 


Approved 
methods  of 
literary 
education. 


Oratory  not 
the  sole  aim 
of  education. 


414  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

from  hence  you  will  find  out  in  each  the  several  superiori¬ 
ties.  It  will  be  great  honour  to  you,  if  sometimes  the  advan¬ 
tage  appears  on  your  side :  It  will  be  great  shame,  if  you 
are  always  inferior.  It  may  be  proper  for  you  now  and 
then,  both  to  choose  out  the  most  distinguished  parts,  and 
to  vie  with  those  particular  passages  when  chosen ;  such 
a  contest  is  rather  bold  than  rash,  because  it  is  secret.  Al¬ 
though,  in  this  sort  of  race,  I  have  seen  many  persons 
acquire  great  applause,  by  out-running  such  authors,  whom 
they  thought  it  would  have  been  sufficient  honour  to  have 
followed. 

After  your  work  has  lain  by  long  enough  to  be  out  of 
your  memory,  you  should  review  the  whole  ;  should  retain 
many  things,  throw  away  more ;  interline  some,  write 
others  over  again.  This  is  an  irksome  and  laborious  task, 
but  the  difficulty  is  productive  of  good  consequences  ;  as 
by  it  you  grow  warm  afresh,  and  resume  a  strength,  which 
had  been  broken,  and  was  become  languid.  Lastly,  you 
add,  as  it  were,  new  limbs  to  a  body  already  well  consti¬ 
tuted,  without  molesting  those  of  the  original  formation. 

I  know  your  principal  study  at  present  is  oratory  ;  but  I 
am  far  from  persuading  you  to  be  perpetually  pursuing 
that  controversial,  and,  if  I  may  say  so,  that  warlike  style  : 
for,  as  our  lands  are  sowed  with  variety  of  seeds,  and  those 
seeds  are  often  changed  ;  so  our  minds  must  be  employed, 
sometimes  in  one,  then  in  another  kind  of  application.  I 
am  desirous,  that  you  should  comment  upon  remarkable 
points  of  history  :  I  am  desirous,  that  you  should  be  particu¬ 
larly  careful  in  writing  letters.  I  am  desirous,  that  you 
should  make  verses ;  because,  in  speeches,  an  absolute  ne¬ 
cessity  often  happens  for  description,  not  only  in  an  histori¬ 
cal,  but  in  a  poetical  manner.  A  closer  and  more  delicate 
vein  is  adapted  to  epistles.  You  should  sometimes  refresh 
yourself  with  poetry.  I  do  not  say,  that  such  an  exercise 
should  be  constant,  or  that  your  poems  should  be  long 
(those  circumstances  can  only  be  the  effect  of  leisure),  but 
rather  witty,  and  short,  fit  interludes  between  all  kinds  of 
care  and  business.  Such  poems  are  called  amusements ; 
but  they  often  produce  as  great  a  share  of  reputation,  as 
more  serious  performances.  And  therefore,  why  should  I 
not  tempt  you  to  versification,  by  verses  themselves  ? 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  415 

I 

When  yielding  wax,  with  pressure  warm, 

The  artist’s  hand  receives, 

Each  new  creation  takes  its  form, 

And  every  figure  lives  : 

II 

Mars  seems  to  knit  his  warlike  brow; 

Minerva  seems  to  move  ; 

Here,  Cupid  bends  his  magic  bow  ; 

There,  smiles  the  queen  of  love. 

III 

As  bursting  flames  are  taught  to  know 
The  force  of  water’s  power ; 

As  currents,  when  through  meads  they  flow, 

Refresh  each  field  and  flower. 


IV 

So  shall  the  mind,  by  art  impressed, 

Like  wax,  new  forms  impart, 

Or  stand  like  torrent’s  force  confessed, 

Or  flow  from  art  to  art. 

In  this  manner  the  greatest  orators,  and  even  the  great¬ 
est  men,  have  exercised  or  amused  themselves.  Indeed  it 
is  wonderful,  how  much  the  mind  is  displayed,  and  de¬ 
lighted  by  those  trifling  performances.  For  they  admit 
of  love,  hatred,  anger,  pity,  mirth,  in  a  word,  all  circum¬ 
stances  that  pass  in  life ;  even  the  business  in  the  forum, 
and  the  causes  at  the  bar.  In  such  sort  of  verses  we  find 
also  the  same  usefulness  as  in  all  other  poetry :  we  take 
pleasure  in  the  freedom  of  a  prose  oration,  as  soon  as  we 
are  loosed  from  the  chains  of  metre.  Comparison  shows 
us,  which  is  the  easiest,  and  there  we  write  with  the 
greater  willingness.  I  have  now  sent  you  more  particu¬ 
lars  than  you  desired ;  but  there  is  still  one  point,  which  I 
have  omitted.  I  have  not  told  you  what  books  you  ought 
to  read,  although  perhaps  I  expressed  my  meaning,  by 
telling  you  what  you  ought  to  write.  You  will  remember 
to  choose  the  best  authors  of  every  kind.  The  saying 


Value  of 
versifying  as 
a  method. 


As  to 
reading, 
read  much, 
not  many 
books. 


Formal 
character  of 
the  work  of 
the  schools 
of  the 
rhetors. 


416  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

runs,  We  should  read  much,  not  many  books.  Who  those 
authors  are,  is  a  point  too  well  known,  and  too  universally 
proved,  to  need  any  particular  description  :  and  besides,  I 
have  stretched  out  my  letter  so  immoderately,  that  while 
I  am  persuading  you  in  what  manner  to  study,  I  am  break¬ 
ing  in  upon  your  time  of  studying.  However,  resume 
your  table-books,  and  either  write  upon  the  subjects,  which 
I  have  mentioned,  or  continue  the  particular  work  you  had 
begun.  Adieu. 


Selection  from  Satire  VII.1  of  Juvenal 

.  .  .  Do  you  teach  declamation  ? 2  Oh  what  a  heart  of 
steel  must  Vectius  have,  when  his  numerous  class  kills 
cruel  tyrants  ! 3  For  all  that  the  boy  has  just  conned  over 
at  his  seat,  he  will  then  stand  up  and  spout  —  the  same 
stale  theme  in  the  same  sing-song.  It  is  the  reproduction 
of  the  cabbage  4  that  wears  out  the  master’s  life.  What  is 
the  plea  to  be  urged :  what  the  character  of  the  cause ; 
where  the  main  point  of  the  case  hinges ;  what  shafts  may 
issue  from  the  opposing  party ;  —  this  all  are  anxious  to 
know  ;  but  not  one  is  anxious  to  pay  !  “  Pay  do  you  ask 

for?  why,  what  do  I  know?”5  The  blame,  forsooth,  is 
laid  at  the  teacher’s  door,  because  there  is  not  a  spark  of 
energy  in  the  breast  of  this  scion  of  Arcadia,6  who  dins  his 
awful  Hannibal  into  my  ears  regularly  every  sixth  day.7 


1  This  satire  gives  an  account  of  the  general  discouragement  under  which 
literature  labored  at  Rome.  This  is  shown  in  regard  to  the  various  depart¬ 
ments  of  learning;  those  discussed  previous  to  the  selection  given  are  history, 
law,  and  oratory.  In  the  passages  given  the  author  shows  that  even  worse 
conditions  exist  for  the  teachers  of  rhetoric  and  of  grammar. 

2  This  was  the  chief  work  of  the  rhetorical  schools. 

3  The  theme  given  by  Vectius,  who  stands  for  any  teacher  of  rhetoric,  is 
supposed  to  be  on  the  suppression  of  tyrants. 

4  Refers  to  the  old  Greek  proverb,  “  Cabbage  heated  several  times  is 
death,”  a  progenitor  of  the  modern  jokes  concerning  hash. 

5  These  are  the  words  of  the  dull  and  inattentive  scholar  to  his  master. 

6  The  Arcadians  were  proverbially  stupid. 

7  The  adventures  of  Hannibal  formed  a  most  common  theme  in  the  Roman 
schools. 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  417 

Whatever  the  theme  be  that  is  to  be  the  subject  of  his 
deliberation ;  whether  he  shall  march  at  once  from  Can¬ 
nae  on  Rome ;  or  whether,  rendered  circumspect  after 
the  storms  and  thunderbolts,  he  shall  lead  his  cohorts, 
drenched  with  the  tempest,  by  a  circuitous  route.1  Bar¬ 
gain  for  any  sum  you  please,  and  I  will  at  once  place  it  in 
your  hands,  on  condition  that  his  father  should  hear  him 
his  lesson  as  often  as  I  have  to  do  it !  But  six  or  more 
sophists  2  are  all  giving  tongue  at  once ;  and,  debating  in 
good  earnest,  have  abandoned  all  fictitious  declamations 
about  the  ravisher.3  No  more  is  heard  of  the  poison 
infused,4  or  the  vile  ungrateful  husband,5  or  the  drugs 
that  can  restore  the  aged  blind  to  youth.6  He  therefore 
that  quits  the  shadowy  conflicts  of  rhetoric  for  the  arena 
of  real  debate,7  will  superannuate  himself,  if  my  advice 
has  any  weight  with  him,  and  enter  on  a  different  path  of 
life ;  that  he  may  not  lose  even  the  paltry  sum  that  will 
purchase  that  miserable  ticket  for  corn.8  Since  this  is 
the  most  splendid  reward  you  can  expect.  Just  inquire 
what  Chrysogonus  receives,  or  Pollio,9  for  teaching  the 
sons  of  these  fine  gentlemen,  and  going  into  all  the  details 
of  Theodorus’ 10  treatise. 


1  When  Hannibal  had  encamped  within  three  miles  of  Rome,  he  was  twice 
assailed  by  violent  storms,  at  times  when  both  armies  were  prepared  for  battle. 
This  was  considered  an  unfavorable  omen,  and  the  Carthaginians  withdrew 
from  Rome. 

2  Rhetors. 

3  These  references  are  all  to  fictitious  subjects  of  debates  in  these  schools. 
This  refers  to  the  rape  of  Helen. 

4  Refers  to  Medea,  of  Grecian  mythology,  celebrated  for  her  skill  in  magic. 
The  instance  referred  to  is  her  murder  of  the  daughter  of  Creon,  the  king  of 
Corinth,  for  whom  Jason,  Medea’s  husband,  had  deserted  her. 

5  /Eneas,  who  abandoned  Dido. 

6  The  question  for  debate  was,  what  drugs  restored  sight  and  youth  to 
/Eson. 

7  To  practice  in  the  law  courts. 

8  The  poorer  Romans  received  every  month  tickets,  entitling  them  to  cer¬ 
tain  quantities  of  corn  from  the  public  granaries,  either  free  or  at  least  at  a 
lower  than  market  price. 

9  Rhetorical  teachers. 

10  A  famous  rhetorician. 


Little  atten¬ 
tion  paid  to 
education 
by  the 
wealthy. 


Teachers 
receive  little 
esteem  and 
little  reward. 


418  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

The  baths  will  cost  six  hundred  sestertia,  and  the  colon- 
nade  still  more,  in  which  the  great  man  rides  whenever  it 
rains.  Is  he  to  wait,  forsooth,  for  fair  weather  ?  or  bespat¬ 
ter  his  horses  with  fresh  mud  ?  Nay,  far  better  here  !  for 
here  the  mule’s  hoof  shines  unsullied.  On  the  other  side 
must  rise  a  spacious  dining-room,  supported  on  stately 
columns  of  Numidian  marble,  and  catch  the  cool  sun. 
However  much  the  house  may  have  cost,  he  will  have 
besides  an  artiste  who  can  arrange  his  table  scientifically ; 
another,  who  can  season  made-dishes.  Yet  amid  all  this 
lavish  expenditure,  two  poor  sestertia  will  be  deemed  an 
ample  remuneration  for  Quintilian.  Nothing  will  cost  a 
father  less  than  his  son’s  education. 

“  Then  where  did  Quintilian  get  the  money  to  pay  for 
so  many  estates  ?  ”  Pass  by  the  instances  of  good  fortune 
that  are  but  rare  indeed.  It  is  good  luck  that  makes  a 
man  handsome  and  active;  good  luck  that  makes  him 
wise,  and  noble,  and  well-bred,  and  attaches  the  crescent 
of  the  senator  to  his  black  shoe.1  Good  luck  too  that 
makes  him  the  best  of  orators  and  debaters,  and,  though 
he  has  a  vile  cold,  sing  well !  For  it  makes  all  the  differ¬ 
ence  what  planets  welcome  you  when  you  first  begin  to 
utter  your  infant  cry,  and  are  still  red  from  your  mother. 
If  fortune  so  wills  it,  you  will  become  consul  instead  of 
rhetorician ;  or,  if  she  will,  instead  of  rhetorician,  consul ! 
What  was  Ventidius  2  or  Tullius3  aught  else  than  a  lucky 
planet,  and  the  strange  potency  of  hidden  fate?  Fate, 
that  gives  kingdoms  to  slaves,  and  triumphs  to  captives. 
Yes!  Quintilian  was  indeed  lucky,  but  he  is  a  greater 
rarity  even  than  a  white  crow.  But  many  a  man  has 
repented  of  this  fruitless  and  barren  employment,  as  the 
sad  end  of  Thrasymachus 4  proves,  and  that  of  Secundus 

1  The  senators  and  patricians  wore  a  black  shoe  of  the  finest  leather, 
fastened  by  a  silver  or  ivory  clasp  of  crescent  shape.  This  is  supposed  to  have 
indicated  the  original  number  of  the  senators. 

2  A  son  of  a  bondwoman,  at  first  a  muleteer,  was  afterward  made  prsetor 
and  consul. 

3  Servius  Tullius,  sixth  king,  was  son  of  a  captive. 

4  A  pupil  of  Plato  and  of  Isocrates.  Was  a  teacher  at  Athens.  Meeting 
with  no  success,  he  hanged  himself. 


The  Hellenized  Roman  Education  419 

Carrinas.1  And  you,  too,  Athens,  were  witness  to  the 
poverty  of  him  on  whom  you  had  the  heart  to  bestow 
nothing  save  the  hemlock  that  chilled  his  life-blood ! 

******* 

But  do  you,  parents,  impose  severe  exactions  on  him 
that  is  to  teach  your  boys ;  that  he  be  perfect  in  the  rules 
of  grammar  for  each  word  —  read  all  histories  —  know  all 
authors  as  well  as  his  own  finger-ends ;  that  if  ques¬ 
tioned  at  hazard,  while  on  his  way  to  the  Thermae  or  the 
baths  of  Phoebus,  he  should  be  able  to  tell  the  name  of 
Anchises’  nurse,  and  the  name  and  native  land  of  the  step¬ 
mother  of  Anchemolus  —  tell  off-hand  how  many  years 
Acestes  lived  —  how  many  flagons  of  wine  the  Sicilian 
king  gave  to  the  Phrygians.  Require  of  him  that  he 
mould  their  youthful  morals  as  one  models  a  face  in  wax. 
Require  of  him  that  he  be  the  reverend  father  of  the  com¬ 
pany,  and  check  every  approach  to  immorality. 

It  is  no  light  task  to  keep  watch  over  so  many  boyish 
hands,  so  many  little  twinkling  eyes.  “This,”  says  the 
father,  “  be  the  object  of  your  care  !  ”  —  and  when  the  year 
comes  round  again,  Receive  for  your  pay  as  much  gold  as 
the  people  demand  for  the  victorious  Charioteer  ! 2 

******* 


Selections  from  Satire  XI V.  of  Juvenal 3 

.  .  .  The  greatest  reverence  is  due  to  a  child !  If  you 
are  contemplating  a  disgraceful  act,  despise  not  your 

1  A  teacher  driven  by  poverty  from  Athens  and  Rome.  From  thence  he  was 
banished  by  Caligula  for  political  offence. 

2  The  charioteer  would  receive  for  an  hour’s  work  as  much  as  the  teacher 
for  a  year’s. 

3  The  entire  satire  is  devoted  to  this  subject :  the  duty  of  giving  children 
examples  of  domestic  purity  and  virtue.  This  is  shown  for  the  most  part  by 
indicating  the  facility  with  which  children  copy  the  vices  of  their  parents. 
These  have  some  value  as  an  index  of  the  corruption  of  Roman  society  that 
had  occurred  even  at  this  early  portion  of  the  imperial  period.  Juvenal  wrote 
in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century  of  this  era.  The  vices  he  dwells  upon 
in  this  satire  are  gluttony,  cruelty,  debauchery,  avarice,  etc. 


Of  teachers 

much 

required, 

with  but 

slight 

return. 


The  moral 
education  of 
a  child 
through  the 
home. 


Importance 
of  example. 


Child’s 
character 
formed  by 
imitation  of 
parent’s. 


420  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

child’s  tender  years,  but  let  your  infant  son  act  as  a  check 
upon  your  purpose  of  sinning.  For  if,  at  some  future 
time,  he  shall  have  done  anything  to  deserve  the  censor’s 
wrath,  and  show  himself  like  you,  not  in  person  only  and 
in  face,  but  also  the  true  son  of  your  morals,  and  one  who, 
by  following  your  footsteps,  adds  deeper  guilt  to  your 
crimes  —  then,  forsooth  !  you  will  reprove  and  chastise  him 
with  clamorous  bitterness,  and  then  set  about  altering  your 
will.  Yet  how  dare  you  assume  the  front  severe,  and  license 
of  a  parent’s  speech ;  you,  who  yourself,  though  old,  do 
worse  than  this  ;  and  the  exhausted  cupping-glass  is  long 
ago  looking  out  for  your  brainless  head  ? 1 

If  a  friend  is  coming  to  pay  you  a  visit,  your  whole 
household  is  in  a  bustle.  “Sweep  the  floor,  display  the 
pillars  in  all  their  brilliancy,  let  the  dry  spider  come  down 
with  all  her  web ;  let  one  clean  the  silver,  another  polish 
the  embossed  plate  —  ’’  the  master’s  voice  thunders  out, 
as  he  stands  over  the  work,  and  brandishes  his  whip. 

You  are  alarmed  then,  wretched  man,  lest  your  entrance* 
hall,  befouled  by  dogs,  should  offend  the  eye  of  your  friend 
who  is  corning,  or  your  corridor  be  spattered  with  mud;  and 
yet  one  little  slave  could  clean  all  this  with  half  a  bushel 
of  saw-dust.  And  yet,  will  you  not  bestir  yourself  that 
your  own  son  may  see  your  house  immaculate  and  free 
from  foul  spot  or  crime  ?  It  deserves  our  gratitude  that 
you  have  presented  a  citizen  to  your  country  and  people, 
if  you  take  care  that  he  prove  useful  to  the  state  —  of  ser¬ 
vice  to  her  lands;  useful  in  transacting  the  affairs -both  of 
war  and  peace.  For  it  will  be  a  matter  of  the  highest 
moment  in  what  pursuits  and  moral  discipline  you  train 
him. 

The  stork  feeds  her  young  on  snakes  and  lizards  which 
she  has  discovered  in  the  trackless  fields.  They  too,  when 
fledged,  go  in  quest  of  the  same  animals.  The  vulture, 
quitting  the  cattle,  dogs,  and  gibbets,  hastens  to  her  callow 
brood,  and  bears  to  them  a  portion  of  the  carcass.  There¬ 
fore  this  is  the  food  of  the  vulture  too  when  grown  up,  and 
able  to  feed  itself  and  build  a  nest  in  a  tree  of  its  own.  .  .  . 

1  The  operation  of  cupping  was  a  common  remedy  in  diseases  of  the  brain, 
to  relieve  the  pressure  of  the  blood. 


VI.  THE  ORATOR  AS  THE  IDEAL  OF  ROMAN 

EDUCATION 


The  Period  and  the  Authority.  —  The  De  Oratore  was 
published  in  55  b.c.,  though  the  ostensible  scene  of  the 
dialogue  was  laid  in  91  b.c.  The  conception  of  a  liberal 
education  here  presented  is  the  ideal  of  this  third  period 
of  Roman  educational  development.  It  was  written  at  the 
close  of  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Roman  oratory,  by 
the  consummate  master  of  that  art,  then  at  the  fulness  of 
his  experience  and  at  the  height  of  his  influence.  Since 
the  De  Oratore  is  also  considered  to  be  the  best  expression 
of  Ciceronian  style,  we  find  here  in  every  respect  the  most 
authoritative,  though  very  general,  expression  of  this  rhe¬ 
torical  conception  of  education. 

Cicero’s  life  covered  the  period  from  106  to  43  b.c.,  the 
period  of  the  decline  of  the  Republic.  With  the  transition 
to  the  Empire,  oratory  lost  its  chief  incentive,  liberty ;  but 
its  loss  in  intent  was  made  up  for  a  time  by  increase  in 
extent,  representing  as  it  did  the  accomplishment  of  every 
educated  Roman.  Oratorical  education  gained  also  in 
•becoming  more  systematic  and  better  defined.  On  the 
educational  side  there  was  development  for  more  than  a 
century  after  the  death  of  its  leading  exponent.  The 
expression  of  the  ideal  here  given  is  true  for  the  last 
century  of  the  Republic  and  the  first  century  of  the  Em¬ 
pire.  Cicero  was  not  an  educator,  and  does  not  write 
from  the  educational  point  of  view,  hence  there  is  a  lack 

421 


422  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

of  definiteness  and  detail  in  this  respect;  on  the  contrary, 
he  writes  as  a  publicist  would  now  write,  not  from  a 
knowledge  of  educational  processes,  but  from  a  knowledge 
of  its  results  and  of  the  demands  made  by  society  upon 
educated  men. 

In  the  early  life  of  Cicero,  no  less  than  in  his  writings, 
is  found  an  exposition  of  the  Roman  education  of  his  time. 
He  attended  the  ordinary  Roman  schools,  one  of  which  at 
least  was  under  the  care  of  Aulus  Licinius  Archias,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  Greek  rhetorician,  who  in  after  years  was  de¬ 
fended  in  a  lawsuit  by  his  former  pupil.  This  defence,  the 
Pro  Archia ,  forms  an  additional  source  of  information  for 
the  educational  history  of  this  period.  In  accordance  with 
the  old  educational  customs,  Cicero  was  placed,  after  the 
theoretical  training  in  rhetoric,  under  the  direction  or  tutor¬ 
ship  of  the  distinguished  lawyer,  Scaevola,  one  of  the  char¬ 
acters  in  the  De  Oratore.  Still  later  he  received  a  similar 
training  from  Diodotus  the  Stoic  and  in  the  school  of  the 
rhetorician  Molo.  The  old  customs  are  further  repre¬ 
sented  in  his  education  in  military  science,  which  he  re¬ 
ceived  through  actual  service  under  direction  of  one  of  the 
generals  in  the  campaign  of  the  Consul,  Pompeius  Strabo. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  later  Roman  educational  customs 
are  illustrated  by  his  two  years  of  travel  and  sojourn  in  the 
philosophical  school  of  Athens. 

In  his  accomplishments,  as  well,  Cicero  typifies  the 
education,  whose  ideals  he  here  sets  forth.  As  an  orator, 
he  ranks  next  to  Demosthenes  as  the  greatest  of  ancient 
orators,  and  there  are  yet  preserved,  either  in  whole  or  in 
part,  seventy-seven  of  his  orations,  all  masterpieces  of  that 
art.  As  a  philosopher,  he  is  the  author  of  several  treatises  ; 
as  a  rhetorician,  he  created  Latin  prose  as  a  literary  lan- 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  423 

guage ;  as  a  soldier,  he  justified  his  claim  to  a  triumph, 
denied  him  only  because  of  the  civil  strife  incident  to  the 
formation  of  the  first  triumvirate ;  as  a  statesman,  he  ranks 
with  the  great  of  that  century,  which  was  the  most  produc¬ 
tive  of  great  men  in  Roman  history ;  as  a  patriot,  he  ranks 
among  the  foremost,  though  his  actions  are  marred  by  the 
indecision  and  timidity  that  has  given  basis  in  recent  times 
to  a  view  the  opposite  of  this  5  as  a  historian,  his  reputation 
can  hardly  be  tested  by  extant  works,  though  he  has  a  claim 
to  rank  as  such.  As  a  poet,  however,  he  does  not  rank 
so  high,  his  reputation  in  this  respect  depending  upon 
his  youthful  productions.  All  these  activities  are  summed 
up  in  the  one  term  “  orator,”  which  presents  the  educational 
ideal  of  the  period  and  the  achievements  of  such  a  career. 

The  Source.  —  In  the  De  Oratore ,  Cicero  sets  forth  in  a 
completed  form  his  opinions  concerning  oratory  and  inci¬ 
dentally  concerning  education,  since  the  orator  is  identi¬ 
fied  with  the  educated  man.  This  Cicero  had  already 
done  in  earlier  years,  but  now,  after  his  long  experience 
in  public  life,  he  returns  to  the  task.  These  dialogues 
form  a  very  extensive  work,  summarizing  in  popular 
rhetorical  form  all  that  is  important  in  the  rhetorical 
treatises  of  Aristotle,  Isocrates,  and  other  previous  writers 
on  oratory.  The  persons  of  the  dialogue  are  Lucius 
Licinius  Crassus  and  Marcus  Antonius,  the  two  most 
eminent  orators  of  their  day;  Quintus  Mucius  Scaevola, 
a  former  teacher  of  Cicero,  who  was  celebrated  for  his 
knowledge  of  the  civil  law;  and  two  young  men,  Caius 
Amelius  Cotta  and  Publius  Sulpicius  Rufus,  who  were 
anxious  to  distinguish  themselves  in  oratory  and  for  whose 
benefit  the  dialogues  are  supposed  to  have  been  delivered. 
The  views  of  Cicero  are  expressed  by  Crassus,  who  con- 


424  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

tends  that  the  complete  orator  must  be  acquainted  with 
the  whole  circle  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Antonius  main¬ 
tains  that  universal  knowledge  is  unattainable  ;  that  the 
attempt  to  acquire  too  much  will  result  in  dissipation  of 
energy  and  distraction  of  thought;  that  much  less  is 
required  of  the  successful  orator  ;  and  that  one  will  accom¬ 
plish  more  by  concentration  of  attention  upon  more  practi¬ 
cal  and  immediate  improvement  of  the  natural  powers.  The 
ideas  of  Cicero,  as  given  by  Crassus,  express  the  ideal  of 
the  last  century  of  the  Republic  and  the  first  century  of  the 
Empire.  But  more  than  that,  his  ideas  have  had  a  vogue 
unparalleled,  running  as  they  did  through  many  centuries 
and  revived  as  they  were  in  the  Ciceronianism  of  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  again  to  dominate  educa¬ 
tion  as  an  ideal.  This  dominion  is  due  quite  as  much  to  his 
style  as  to  his  ideas.  It  is  because  Cicero  made  of  Latin 
prose  a  universal  language  that  his  ideas  came  to  have  the 
same  validity  as  did  his  form  of  expression.  These  educa¬ 
tional  ideals  —  both  as  to  form  and  content  —  were  handed 
down  by  Quintilian  of  the  first  century,  the  “Christian 
Cicero,”  Lactantius,  of  the  fourth  century,  John  of  Salis¬ 
bury  of  the  twelfth,  Petrarch  of  the  fourteenth,  and 
Erasmus  of  the  sixteenth,  until  they  again  dominated  in 
the  later  period  mentioned. 

In  the  selections  given  from  the  De  Oratore  no  attempt 
has  been  made  to  preserve  the  continuity  of  the  discussion. 
The  few  paragraphs  given  lose  the  proportion  of  the 
extended  dialogues,  for  they  constitute  less  than  one-six¬ 
teenth  of  the  entire  work.  The  passages  quoted  present 
Cicero’s  exposition  of  the  consummation  of  all  education 
as  found  in  the  orator ;  second,  the  content  of  that  educa¬ 
tion,  identical  with  our  conception  of  the  “  humanities  ” ; 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  425 

third,  the  notable  account,  in  paragraphs  31  to  35,  of  his 
own  education.  These  selections  are  all  taken  fiom  the 
first  of  the  three  books. 

Summary  of  Contents  of  the  Source.  —  To  the  Roman, 
oratory  was  of  much  broader  connotation  than  to  the  mod¬ 
ern.  The  orator  included  the  teacher,  the  publicist,  the 
religious  teacher,  of  the  present,  as  well  as  the  man  devoted 
to  legal,  judicial,  or  legislative  activities  \  the  orator  was 
the  educated  man  participating  in  public  affairs.  In  the  ab¬ 
sence  of  the  modern  pulpit,  of  the  press,  of  the  university 
and  scientific  organization,  the  orator  combined  the  func¬ 
tions  of  these  with  the  functions  of  the  bar  and  forum. 
The  spoken  word  then  accomplished  what  both  the  spoken 
and  written  word  does  now.  Oratory  meant  efficient  pub¬ 
lic  interest  and  activity.  The  only  rival  to  the  orator  as 
the  type  of  the  educated  man  was  the  Grecian  ideal  of 
the  philosopher, — an  ideal  foreign  to  the  Roman  genius, 
for  it  had  no  relation  to  practical  life  or  the  needs  of  the 
Roman  state.  The  philosopher  was  interested  either  in 
knowledge  for  its  own  sake  or  in  experience  for  his  own 
satisfaction.  Whether  the  philosophical  ideal  was  Acade¬ 
mician  or  Epicurean,  it  was  a  narrow  one  to  the  Roman. 
With  his  practical  instinct  the  Roman  avoided  that  indi¬ 
vidualism  —  cast  though  it  might  be  in  the  highest  form 
which  had  brought  destruction  to  the  Grecian  state  at  the 
same  time  that  it  made  the  influence  of  Greece  cosmopolitan. 

Cicero  presents  both  sides  of  the  question  :  the  philoso¬ 
pher  as  viewed  by  the  orator,  and  the  orator  as  viewed  by 
the  philosopher.  In  his  conception,  the  orator  should 
have  the  knowledge  of  the  philosopher  in  respect  both  of 
things  and  human  nature,  but  in  addition  he  should  have  the 
power  to  make  such  knowledge  of  practical  value  in  influ- 


426  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

encing  his  fellows  through  his  power  of  speech.  To  the 
Roman  this  power  of  speech  stood  for  the  various  ways 
in  which  the  modern  educated  man  can  make  his  knowl¬ 
edge  effective  in  the  service  of  his  fellows.  It  is  not  that 
this  conception  of  education  was  narrow,  but  rather 
that  the  social  organization  of  the  times  gave  but  few 
facilities  for  bringing  intellect  to  bear  upon  practical  in¬ 
terests.  Even  the  great  warriors  of  the  period  were  no 
less  great  orators :  oratory  was  not  separated  from  prac¬ 
tical  efficiency.  In  fact,  Cicero  offers  the  first  example 
of  a  man  who  won  his  way  to  prominence  and  influence 
primarily  as  a  speaker.  To  Cicero  and  the  Romans  phi¬ 
losophy,  whatever  might  be  its  character,  was  deficient, 
because  it  was  self-centred;  and  it  is  a  fact  that  the 
decline  of  public  and  patriotic  interest  was  coincident  with 
the  growth  of  philosophic  interest,  and  was  partly  due  to 
it.  From  this  point  of  view,  oratory  was  a  broader  as  well 
as  a  higher  aim  than  philosophy,  —  it  was  inclusive  of  phi¬ 
losophy.  If  there  were  many  who  failed  to  reach  this 
ideal,  if  there  was  much  public  speaking  that  was  not  elo¬ 
quence,  it  was  at  least  easily  detected,  was,  in  fact,  self- 
evident.  On  the  other  hand,  philosophy,  though  only  a 
partial  aim  at  best,  was  easily  imitated,  and  the  imitation 
was  with  difficulty  detected.  In  fact,  there  were  more 
delinquents  in  the  latter  field  than  defectives  in  the  for¬ 
mer  ;  for  philosophy  as  it  became  popular  at  a  later  time 
was  simply  the  theory  of  the  individualized  and  self-cen¬ 
tred  life,  while  oratory  set  high  standards,  even  though 
its  actual  accomplishment  might  be  far  below  its  ideals. 

The  argument  of  the  philosopher  against  the  orator  is 
fourfold :  first,  the  orator  obtains  all  his  knowledge  con¬ 
cerning  “  the  immortal  gods,  the  discipline  of  youth,  justice, 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  427 

patience,  temperance,  moderation  in  everything,  and  other 
matters,”  only  from  philosophy ;  second,  the  books  of  the 
rhetoricians  are  filled  not  with  these  large  affairs,  but  with 
rules  and  petty  details;  third,  even  if  this  literature  should  be 
of  a  higher  grade  and  rhetoricians  more  intelligent  teachers, 
eloquence  is  a  natural  gift  and  not  an  acquired  art ;  fourth, 
no  writer  on  the  art  of  rhetoric  was  even  moderately  elo¬ 
quent  in  speech.  The  diffuse  reply  to  those  arguments 
cannot  be  included  in  the  selections  given  on  account  of  its 
length.  The  reply,  however,  has  been  substantially  pre¬ 
sented  in  the  previously  expressed  view  of  Cicero:  elo¬ 
quence  presupposes  the  knowledge  of  the  philosopher, 
oratory  is  based  both  upon  a  knowledge  of  philosophy 

and  a  knowledge  of  rhetoric. 

In  addition  to  this  general  discussion  of  the  oratorical 
conception  of  education,  Cicero  gives  a  general  outline  of 
the  content  and  the  method  of  his  own  education.  Both, 
however,  refer  to  the  work  of  the  rhetorical  schools  pre¬ 
viously  described.  This  narrower  view  is  to  be  supple¬ 
mented  by  the  general  tenor  of  his  entire  discussion,  which 
insists  that  the  whole  realm  of  knowledge  is  the  proper 
subject-matter  of  oratorical  education.  This  broader  view 
is  stated  at  least  in  the  earlier  paragraphs  of  the  selection. 
The  entire  subject  is  further  treated  in  detail  in  the  dia¬ 
logue  On  Brutus.  This  extensive  work  is  a  concrete 
demonstration  and  defence  of  the  oratorical  conception  of 
education,  and  forms  an  epitome  of  Roman  history  in  the 
lives  of  its  eminent  orators.  Views  therein  given  corrob¬ 
orate  in  numerous  details,  though  not  in  direct  exposi¬ 
tion,  statements  made  in  the  De  Oratore.  The  systematic 
exposition  of  the  orator  as  an  educational  type  is  given  by 
Quintilian  a  century  and  a  half  later. 


428  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 
Selections  from  the  De  Oratore  of  Cicero 

BOOK  I 

III.  .  .  .  The  whole  art  of  speaking  lies  before  us, 
and  is  concerned  with  common  usage  and  the  custom  and 
language  of  all  men ;  so  that  while  in  other  things  that  is 
most  excellent  which  is  most  remote  from  the  knowledge 
and  understanding  of  the  illiterate,  it  is  in  speaking  even 
the  greatest  of  faults  to  vary  from  the  ordinary  kind  of 
anguage,  and  the  practice  sanctioned  by  universal  reason. 

becomes  the  J  Yet,  Jt  cannot  be  said  with  truth,  either  that  more 
aim  Of  are  devoted  to  the  other  arts,  or  that  they  are  excited  by 
education  at  greater  pleasure,  more  abundant  hope,  or  more  ample 
Rome.  rewards ;  for  to  say  nothing  of  Greece,  which  was  always 
desirous  to  hold  the  first  place  in  eloquence,  and  Athens 
that  inventress  of  all  literature,  in  which  the  utmost  power 
of  oratory  was  both  discovered  and  brought  to  perfection 
in  this  very  city  of  ours,  assuredly,  no  studies  were  ever 
pursued  with  more  earnestness  than  those  tending  to  the 
acquisition  of  eloquence.  For  when  our  empire  over  all 
nations  was  established,  and  after  a  period  of  peace  had 
secured  tranquillity,  there  was  scarcely  a  youth  ambitious 
of  praise  who  did  not  think  that  he  must  strive,  with  all 
his  endeavours,  to  attain  the  art  of  speaking.  For  a  time 
indeed,  as  being  ignorant  of  all  method,  and  as  thinking 
there  was  no  course  of  exercise  for  them,  or  any  precepts 
of  art,  they  attained  what  they  could  by  the  single  force 
of  genius  and  thought.  But  afterwards,  having  heard  the 
Greek  orators,  and  gained  an  acquaintance  with  Greek 
iterance,  a.nd  procured  instructors,  our  countrymen  were 
inflamed  with  an  incredible  passion  for  eloquence.  The 
magnitude,  the  variety,  the  multitude  of  all  kind  of  causes 
excited  them  to  such  a  degree,  that  to  that  learning  which 
each  had  acquired  by  his  individual  study,  frequent  prac¬ 
tice,  which  was  superior  to  the  precepts  of  all  masters,  was 
at  once  added  There  were  then,  as  there  are  also  now, 
the  highest  inducements  offered  for  the  cultivation  of  this 
study,  in  regard  to  public  favour,  wealth,  and  dignity.  The 
abilities  of  our  countrymen  (as  we  may  judge  from  many 
particulars),  far  excelled  those  of  the  men  of  every  other 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  429 

nation.  For  which  reasons,  who  would  not  justly  wonder 
that  in  the  records  of  all  ages,  times,  and  states,  so  small 

a  number  of  orators  should  be  found  ? 

But  the  art  of  eloquence  is  something  greater,  and  col-  Essential 

lected  from  more  sciences  and  studies,  than  people  imag- 
ine.  V.  For  who  can  suppose  that,  amid  the  greatest  orat0r. 
multitude  of  students,  the  utmost  abundance  of  masteis, 
the  most  eminent  geniuses  among  men,  the  infinite  variety 
of  causes,  the  most  ample  rewards  offered  to  eloquence, 
there  is  any  other  reason  to  be  found  for  the  small  number 
of  orators  than  the  incredible  magnitude  and  difficulty  of 
the  art  ?  A  knowledge  of  a  vast  number  of  things  is 
necessary,  without  which  volubility  of  words  is  empty  and 
ridiculous;  speech  itself  is  to  be  formed,  not  merely  by 
choice,  but  by  careful  construction  of  words  ;  and  all  the 
emotions  of  the  mind,  which  nature  has  given  to  man, 
must  be  intimately  known  ;  for  all  the  force  and.  art  of 
speaking  must  be  employed  in  allaying  or  exciting  the 
feelings  of  those  who  listen.  Xo  this  must  be  added  a 
certain  portion  of  grace  and  wit,  learning  worthy  of  a  well- 
bred  man,  and  quickness  and  brevity  in  replying  as  well  as 
attacking,  accompanied  with  a  refined  decorum  and  urban¬ 
ity.  Besides,  the  whole  of  antiquity  and  a  multitude  of 
examples  is  to  be  kept  in  the  memory ;  nor  is  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  laws  in  general,  or  of  the  civil  law  in  particular,  to 
be  neglected.  And  why  need  I  add  any  remarks  on  de¬ 
livery  itself,  which  is  to  be  ordered  by  action  of  body,  by 
gesture,  by  look,  and  by  modulation  and  variation  of  the 
voice,  the  great  power  of  which,  alone  and  in  itself,  the 
comparatively  trivial  art  of  actors  and  the  stage  proves,  on 
which  though  all  bestow  their  utmost  labour  to  form  their 
look,  voice,  and  gesture,  who  knows  not  how  few  there 
are  and  have  ever  been,  to  whom  we  can  attend  with 
patience?  What  can  I  say  of  that  repository  for  all 
things,  the  memory,  which,  unless  it  be  made  the  keeper 
of  the  matter  and  words  that  are  the  fruits  of  thought 
and  invention,  all  the  talents  of  the  orator,  we  see  though 
they  be  of  the  highest  degree  of  excellence,  will  be  of  no 
avail  ?  Let  us  then  cease  to  wonder  what  is  the  cause  ot 
the  scarcity  of  good  speakers,  since  eloquence  results  from 
all  those  qualifications,  in  each  of  which  singly  it  is  a  great 


Breadth  of 
knowledge 
essential. 


Only  certain 
types  of 
oratory  dis¬ 
cussed. 


430  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

merit  to  labour  successfully ;  and  let  us  rather  exhort  our 
children,  and  others  whose  glory  and  honour  is  dear  to  us, 
to  contemplate  in  their  minds  the  full  magnitude  of  the 
object,  and  not  to  trust  that  they  can  reach  the  height  at 
which  they  aim,  by  the  aid  of  the  precepts,  masters,  and 
exercises,  that  they  are  all  now  following,  but  to  under¬ 
stand  that  they  must  adopt  others  of  a  different  character. 

VI.  In  my  opinion,  indeed,  no  man  can  be  an  orator 
possessed  of  every  praiseworthy  accomplishment,  unless 
he  has  attained  the  knowledge  of  everything  important, 
and  of  all  liberal  arts,  for  his  language  must  be  ornate  and 
copious  from  knowledge,  since,  unless  there  be  beneath 
the  surface  matter  understood  and  felt  by  the  speaker, 
oratory  becomes  an  empty  and  almost  puerile  flow  of 
words.  Yet  I  will  not  lay  so  great  a  burden  upon  orators, 
especially  our  own,  amid  so  many  occupations  of  public 
and  private  life,  as  to  think  it  allowable  for  them  to  be 
ignorant  of  nothing ;  although  the  qualifications  of  an  ora¬ 
tor,  and  his  very  profession  of  speaking  well,  seem  to 
undertake  and  promise  that  he  can  discourse  gracefully 
and  copiously  on  whatever  subject  is  proposed  to  him. 
But  because  this,  I  doubt  now,  will  appear  to  most  people 
an  immense  and  infinite  undertaking,  and  because  I  see 
that  the  Greeks,  men  amply  endowed  not  only  with  genius 
and  learning,  but  also  with  leisure  and  application,  have 
made  a  kind  of  partition  of  the  arts,  and  have  not  singly 
laboured  in  the  whole  circle  of  oratory,  but  have  separated 
from  the  other  parts  of  rhetoric  that  department  of  elo¬ 
quence  which  is  used  in  the  forum  on  trials  or  in  delibera¬ 
tions,  and  have  left  this  species  only  to  the  orator  ;  I  shall 
not  embrace  in  these  books  more  than  has  been  attributed 
to  this  kind  of  speaking  by  the  almost  unanimous  consent 
of  the  greatest  men,  after  much  examination  and  discus¬ 
sion  of  the  subject ;  and  I  shall  repeat,  not  a  series  of  pre¬ 
cepts  drawn  from  the  infancy  of  our  old  and  boyish  learning, 
but  matters  which  I  have  heard  were  formerly  argued  in  a 
discussion  among  some  of  our  countrymen  who  were  of  the 
highest  eloquence,  and  of  the  first  rank  in  every  kind  of 
dignity.  Not  that  I  contemn  the  instructions  which  the 
Greek  rhetoricians  and  teachers  have  left  us,  but,  as  they 
are  already  public,  and  within  the  reach  of  all,  and  can 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  431 

neither  be  set  forth  more  elegantly,  nor  explained  more 
clearly  by  my  interpretation,  you  will,  I  think,  excuse  me, 
my  brother,  if  I  prefer  to  the  Greeks  the  authority  of  those 
to  whom  the  utmost  merit  in  eloquence  has  been  allowed 
by  our  own  countrymen. 


XI.  .  “A  controversy  indeed  on  the  word  Orator  has 
long  disturbed  the  minute  Grecians,  who  are  fonder  of  argu¬ 
ment  than  of  truth.  For  if  any  one  pronounces  him  to  be 
an  orator  who  can  speak  fluently  only  on  law  in  general,  or 
on  judicial  questions,  or  before  the  people,  or  in  the  senate, 
he  must  yet  necessarily  grant  and  allow  him  a  variety  of 
talents ;  for  he  cannot  treat  even  of  these  matters  with 
sufficient  skill  and  accuracy  without  great  attention  to  all 
public  affairs,  nor  without  a  knowledge  of  laws,  customs, 
and  equity,  nor  without  understanding  the  nature  and 
manners  of  mankind  ;  and  to  him  who  knows  these  things, 
without  which  no  one  can  maintain  even  the  most  minute 
points  in  judicial  pleadings,  how  much  is  wanting  of  the 
knowledge  even  of  the  most  important  affairs  ?  But  it  you 
allow  nothing  to  belong  to  the  orator  but  to  speak  aptly, 
ornately,  and  copiously,  how  can  he  even  attain  these 
qualities  without  that  knowledge  which  you  do.  not  allow 
him  ?  for  there  can  be  no  true  merit  in  speaking,  unless 
what  is  said  is  thoroughly  understood  by  him  who  says  it. 
If  therefore,  the  natural  philosopher  Democritus  spoke 
with  elegance,  as  he  is  reported  to  have  spoken,  and  as  it 
appears  to  me  that  he  did  speak,  the  matter  on  which  he 
spoke  belonged  to  the  philosopher,  but  the  graceful  array 
of  words  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  orator.  And  if  Plato 
spoke  divinely  upon  subjects  most  remote  from  civil  con¬ 
troversies,  as  I  grant  that  he  did  ;  if  also  Aristotle,  and 
Theophrastus,  and  Carneades,  were  eloquent,  and  spo 
with  sweetness  and  grace  on  those  matters  which  they  d  - 
cussed;  let  the  subjects  on  which  they  spoke  belong  to 
other  studies,  but  their  speech  itself,  surely,  . is  the  peculiar 
offspring  of  that  art  of  which  we  are  now  discoursing  and 
inauiring.  For  we  see  that  some  have  reasoned  on  the 
same  subjects  jejunely  and  drily,  as  Chrysippus  whom 
they  celebrate  as  the  acutest  of  philosophers ,  nor  is  he  on 


Even  with 
these  limi¬ 
tations,  a 
vast  range 
of 

knowledge 

necessary. 


Eloquence 
essential  to 
every  type 
of  educated 
man. 


Oratory  de¬ 
pends  upon 
mastery  of 
subject  as 
well  as 
copiousness 
of  speech. 


To  the 
knowledge 
of  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  the 
philosopher, 
the  orator 
adds  a 
knowledge 
of  human 
nature  and 
the  ability 
to  make  his 
knowledge 
effective. 


432  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

this  account  to  be  thought  to  have  been  deficient  in  phi¬ 
losophy,  because  he  did  not  gain  the  talent  of  speaking 
from  an  art  which  is  foreign  to  philosophy. 

XII.  “Where  then  lies  the  difference?  Or  by  what 
term  will  you  discriminate  the  fertility  and  copiousness  of 
speech  in  those  whom  I  have  named,  from  the  barrenness 
of  those  who  use  not  this  variety  and  elegance  of  phrase  ? 
One  thing  there  will  certainly  be,  which  those  who  speak 
well  will  exhibit  as  their  own  ;  a  graceful  and  elegant  style, 
distinguished  by  a  peculiar  artifice  and  polish.  But  this 
kind  of  diction,  if  there  be  not  matter  beneath  it  clear  and 
intelligible  to  the  speaker,  must  either  amount  to  nothing, 
or  be  received  with  ridicule  by  all  who  hear  it.  For  what 
savours  so  much  of  madness,  as  the  empty  sound  of  words, 
even  the  choicest  and  most  elegant,  when  there  is  no  sense 
or  knowledge  contained  in  them  ?  Whatever  be  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  a  speech,  therefore,  in  whatever  art  or  branch  of 
science,  the  orator,  if  he  has  made  himself  master  of  it,  as 
of  his  client’s  cause,  will  speak  on  it  better  and  more  ele¬ 
gantly  than  even  the  very  originator  and  author  of  it  can. 
If  indeed  any  one  shall  say  that  there  are  certain  trains  of 
thought  and  reasoning  properly  belonging  to  orators,  and 
a  knowledge  of  certain  things  circumscribed  within  the 
limits  of  the  forum,  I  will  confess  that  our  common  speech 
is  employed  about  these  matters  chiefly ;  but  yet  there  are 
many  things,  in  these  very  topics,  which  those  masters  of 
rhetoric,  as  they  are  called,  neither  teach  nor  understand. 
For  who  is  ignorant  that  the  highest  power  of  an  orator 
consists  in  exciting  the  minds  of  men  to  anger,  or  to  hatred, 
or  to  grief,  or  in  recalling  them  from  these  more  violent 
emotions  to  gentleness  and  compassion  ?  which  power  will 
never  be  able  to  effect  its  object  by  eloquence,  unless  in 
him  who.  has  obtained  a  thorough  insight  into  the  nature 
of  mankind,  and  all  the  passions  of  humanity,  and  those 
causes  by  which  our  minds  are  either  impelled  or  restrained. 
But  all  these  are  thought  to  belong  to  the  philosophers, 
nor  will  the  orator,  at  least  with  my  consent,  ever  deny 
that  such  is  the  case ;  but  when  he  has  conceded  to  them 
the.  knowledge  of  things,  since  they  are  willing  to  exhaust 
their  labours  of  that  alone,  he  will  assume  to  himself  the 
treatment  of  oratory,  which  without  that  knowledge  is 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  433 


nothing.  For  the  proper  concern  of  an  orator,  as  I  have 
already  often  said,  is  language  of  power  and  elegance 
accommodated  to  the  feelings  and  understandings  of 
mankind. 

XIII.  “On  these  matters  I  confess  that  Aristotle  and 
Theophrastus  have  written.  But  consider,  Scaevola,  whether 
this  is  not  wholly  in  my  favour.  For  I  do  not  borrow  from 
them  what  the  orator  possesses  in  common  with  them  ;  but 
they  allow  that  what  they  say  on  these  subjects  belongs 
to  oratory.  Their  other  treatises,  accordingly,  they  distin¬ 
guish  by  the  name  of  the  science  on  which  each  is  written ; 
their  treatises  on  oratory  they  entitle  and  designate  as 
books  of  rhetoric.  For  when,  in  their  discussions,  (as  often 
happens,)  such  topics  present  themselves  as  require  them 
to  speak  of  the  immortal  gods,  of  piety,  of  concord,  of 
friendship,  of  the  common  rights  of  their  fellow-citizens, 
or  those  of  all  mankind,  of  the  law  of  nations,  of  equity,  of 
temperance,  of  greatness  of  mind,  of  every  kind  of  virtue, 
all  the  academies  and  schools  of  philosophy,  I  imagine, 
will  cry  out  that  all  these  subjects  are  their  property,  and 
that  no  particle  of  them  belongs  to  the  orator.  But  when 
I  have  given  them  liberty  to  reason  on  all  these  subjects  in 
corners  to  amuse  their  leisure,  I  shall  give  and  assign  to 
the  orator  his  part,  which  is,  to  set  forth  with  full  power 
and  attraction  the  very  same  topics  which  they  discuss  in 
such  tame  and  bloodless  phraseology.  These  points  I  then 
discussed  with  the  philosophers  in  person  at  Athens,  for 
Marcus  Marcellus,  our  countryman,  who  is  now  curule 
aedile,  obliged  me  to  do  so,  and  he  would  certainly  have 
taken  part  in  our  present  conversation,  were  he  not  now 
celebrating  the  public  games ;  for  he  was  then  a  youth 
marvellously  given  to  these  studies. 

Of  the  institution  of  laws,  of  war,  of  peace,  of  alliances, 
of  tributes,  of  the  civil  law  as  relating  to  various  ranks  and 
ages  respectively,  let  the  Greeks  say,  if  they  will,  that 
Lycurgus  or  Solon  (although  I  think  that  these  should  be 
enrolled  in  the  number  of  the  eloquent)  had  more  knowl¬ 
edge  than  Hypereides  or  Demosthenes,  men  of  the  highest 
accomplishments  and  refinement  in  oratory ;  or  let  our 
countrymen  prefer,  in  this  sort  of  knowledge,  the  Decem¬ 
viri  who  wrote  the  Twelve  Tables,  and  who  must  have 


Subject- 
matter  of 
the 

philosopher 
and  the 
orator  the 
same;  differ 
in  form  of 
presentation 
and  purpose. 


Cicero’s 
definition  of 
an  orator. 


434  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Necessity  for 
a  general 
knowledge 
demon¬ 
strated. 


been  wise  men,  to  Servius  Galba,  and  your  father-in-law 
Laelius,  who  are  allowed  to  have  excelled  in  the  glorious 
art  of  speaking.  I,  indeed,  shall  never  deny  that  there  are 
some  sciences  peculiarly  well  understood  by  those  who 
have  applied  their  whole  study  to  the  knowledge  and  con¬ 
sideration  of  them ;  but  the  accomplished  and  complete 
orator  I  shall  call  him  who  can  speak  on  all  subjects  with 
variety  and  copiousness. 

XIV.  For  often  in  those  causes  which  all  acknowledge 
properly  to  belong  to  orators,  there  is  something  to  be 
drawn  forth  and  adopted,  not  from  the  routine  of  the 
Forum,  which  is  the  only  knowledge  that  you  grant  to 
the  orator,  but  from  some  of  the  more  obscure  sciences. 
I  ask  whether  a  speech  can  be  made  for  or  against  a  gen¬ 
eral,  without  an  acquaintance  with  military  affairs,  or  often 
without  a  knowledge  of  certain  inland  and  maritime  coun¬ 
tries  ?  whether  a  speech  can  be  made  to  the  people  about 
passing  or  rejecting  laws,  or  in  the  senate  on  any  kind  of 
public  transactions,  without  the  greatest  knowledge  and 
judgment  in  political  matters  ?  whether  a  speech  can  be 
adapted  to  excite  or  calm  the  thoughts  and  passions  (which 
alone  is  a  great  business  of  the  orator)  without  a  most 
diligent  examination  of  all  those  doctrines  which  are  set 
forth  on  the  nature  and  manners  of  men  by  the  philoso¬ 
phers  ?  I  do  not  know  whether  I  may  not  be  less  success¬ 
ful  in  maintaining  what  I  am  going  to  say ;  but  I  shall  not 
hesitate  to  speak  that  which  I  think.  Physics,  and  mathe¬ 
matics,  and  those  other  things  which  you  just  now  decided 
to  belong  to  other  sciences,  belong  to  the  peculiar  knowl¬ 
edge  of  those  who  profess  them ;  but  if  any  one  would 
illustrate  those  arts  by  eloquence,  he  must  have  recourse 
to  the  power  of  oratory.  Nor,  if,  as  is  said,  Philo,  the 
famous  architect,  who  built  an  arsenal  for  the  Athenians, 
gave  that  people  an  eloquent  account  of  his  work,  is  it  to  be 
imagined  that  his  eloquence  proceeded  from  the  art  of  the 
architect,  but  from  that  of  the  orator.  Or,  if  our  friend 
Marcus  Antonius  had  had  to  speak  for  Hermodorus  on 
the  subject  of  dock-building,  he  would  have  spoken,  when 
he  had  learned  the  case  from  Hermodorus,  with  elegance 
and  copiousness,  drawn  from  an  art  quite  unconnected  with 
dock-building.  And  Asclepiades,  whom  we  knew  as  a  phy- 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  435 

sician  and  a  friend,  did  not,  when  he  excelled  others  of  his  But 
profession  in  eloquence,  employ,  in  his  graceful  elocution,  ^t°h^tdge 
the  art  of  physic,  but  that  of  oratory.  What  Socrates  used  powe^of 
to  say,  that  all  men  are  sufficiently  eloquent  in  that  which  effective 
they  understand ,  is  very  plausible,  but  not  true.  It  would  speech  is 
have  been  nearer  truth  to  say,  that  no  man  can  be  eloquent  not  oratory* 
on  a  subject  that  he  does  not  understand ;  and  that,  if  he 
understands  a  subject  ever  so  well,  but  is  ignorant  how  to 
form  and  polish  his  speech,  he  cannot  express  himself 
eloquently  even  about  what  he  does  understand. 

XV.  “  If,  therefore,  any  one  desires  to  define  and  com-  Further 
prehend  the  whole  and  peculiar  power  of  an  orator,  that  definition  of 
man,  in  my  opinion,  will  be  an  orator,  worthy  01  so  great  a  and  of  his 
name,  who,  whatever  subject  comes  before  him,  and  requires  attainments, 
rhetorical  elucidation,  can  speak  on  it  judiciously,  in  set 
form,  elegantly,  and  from  memory,  and  with  a  certain 
dignity  of  action.  But  if  the  phrase  which  I  have  used, 

‘  on  whatever  subject,’  is  thought  by  any  one  too  compre¬ 
hensive,  let  him  retrench  and  curtail  as  much  of  it  as  he 
pleases ;  but  this  I  will  maintain,  that  though  the  orator 
be  ignorant  of  what  belongs  to  other  arts  and  pursuits, 
and  understands  only  what  concerns  the  discussions  and 
practice  of  the  Forum,  yet  if  he  has  to  speak  on  those  arts, 
he  will,  when  he  has  learned  what  pertains  to  any  of  them 
from  persons  who  understand  them,  discourse  upon  them 
much  better  than  the  very  persons  of  whom  those  arts 
form  the  peculiar  province.  Thus,  if  our  friend  Sulpicius 
have  to  speak  on  military  affairs,  he  will  inquire  about 
them  of  my  kinsman  Caius  Marius,  and  when  he  has  re¬ 
ceived  information,  will  speak  upon  them  in  such  a  manner, 
that  he  shall  seem  to  Marius  to  understand  them  better 
than  himself.  Or  if  he  has  to  speak  on  the  civil  law,  he 
will  consult  with  you,  and  will  excel  you,  though  eminently 
wise  and  learned  in  it,  in  speaking  on  those  very  points 
which  he  shall  have  learned  from  yourself.  Or  if  any  sub¬ 
ject  presents  itself,  requiring  him  to  speak  on  the  nature 
and  vices  of  men,  on  desire,  on  moderation,  on  continence, 
on  grief,  on  death,  perhaps,  if  he  thinks  proper  (though 
the  orator  ought  to  have  a  knowledge  of  these  things),  he 
will  consult  with  Sextus  Pompeius,  a  man  learned  in  phi¬ 
losophy.  But  this  he  will  certainly  accomplish,,  that,  of 


436  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Relation  of 
philosophy 
and  oratory. 


Further 
illustration 
of  the  wide 
learning  and 
the  general 
power  of  the 
orator. 


whatever  matter  he  gains  a  knowledge,  or  from  whomso¬ 
ever,  he  will  speak  upon  it  much  more  elegantly  than  the 
very  person  from  whom  he  gained  the  knowledge.  But, 
since  philosophy  is  distinguished  into  three  parts,  inquiries 
into  the  obscurities  of  physics,  the  subtleties  of  logic,  and 
the  knowledge  of  life  and  manners,  let  us,  if  Sulpicius  will 
listen  to  me,  leave  the  two  former,  and  consult  our  ease ; 
but  unless  we  have  a  knowledge  of  the  third,  which  has 
always  been  the  province  of  the  orator,  we  shall  leave  him 
nothing  in  which  he  can  distinguish  himself.  The  part  of 
philosophy,  therefore,  regarding  life  and  manners,  must 
be  thoroughly  mastered  by  the  orator;  other  subjects,  even 
if  he  has  not  learned  them,  he  will  be  able,  whenever  there 
is  occasion,  to  adorn  by  his  eloquence,  if  they  are  brought 
before  him  and  made  known  to  him. 

XVI.  “  For  if  it  is  allowed  amongst  the  learned  that 
Aratus,  a  man  ignorant  of  astronomy,  has  treated  of  heaven 
and  the  constellations  in  extremely  polished  and  excellent 
verses;,  if  Nicander,  of  Colophon,  a  man  totally  uncon¬ 
nected  with  the  country,  has  written  well  on  rural  affairs, 
with  the  aid  of  poetical  talent,  and  not  from  understanding 
husbandry,  what  reason  is  there  why  an  orator  should  not 
speak  most  eloquently  on  those  matters  of  which  he  shall 
have  gained  a  knowledge  for  a  certain  purpose  and  occa¬ 
sion  ?  For  the  poet  is  nearly  allied  to  the  orator;  being 
somewhat  more  restricted  in  numbers,  but  less  restrained 
in  the  choice  of  words,  yet  in  many  kinds  of  embellish¬ 
ment  his  rival  and  almost  equal ;  in  one  respect,  assuredly, 
nearly  the  same,  that  he  circumscribes  or  bounds  his  juris¬ 
diction  by  no  limits,  but  reserves  to  himself  full  right  to 
range  wherever  he  pleases  with  the  same  ease  and  liberty. 
For  why  did  you  say,  Scaevola,  that  you  would  not  endure, 
unless  you  were  in  my  domain,  my  assertion,  that  the 
orator  ought  to  be  accomplished  in  every  style  of  speak- 
ing,  and  in  every  part  of  polite  learning  ?  I  should  cer¬ 
tainly  not  have  said  this  if  I  had  thought  myself  to  be  the 
orator  whom  I  conceive  in  my  imagination.  But,  as  Caius 
Lucilius  used  frequently  to  say  (a  man  not  very  friendly 
to  you,  and  on  that  account  less  familiar  with  me  <  than  he 
could  wish,  but  a  man  of  learning  and  good  breeding),  I 
am  of  this  opinion,  that  no  one  is  to  be  numbered  among 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  437 


orators  who  is  not  thoroughly  accomplished  in  all  branches 
of  knowledge  requisite  for  a  man  of  good  breeding ;  and 
though  we  may  not  put  forward  such  knowledge  in  con¬ 
versation,  yet  it  is  apparent,  and  indeed  evident,  whether 
we  are  destitute  of  it,  or  have  acquired  it ;  as  those  who 
play  at  tennis  do  not  exhibit,  in  playing,  the  gestures  of 
the  palaestra,  but  their  movements  indicate  whether  they 
have  learned  those  exercises  or  are  unacquainted  with 
them  ;  and  as  those  who  shape  out  anything,  though  they 
do  not  then  exercise  the  art  of  painting,  yet  make  it  clear 
whether  they  can  paint  or  not;  so  in  orations  to  courts  of 
justice,  before  the  people,  and  in  the.  senate,  although 
other  sciences  have  no  peculiar  place  in  them,  yet  is  it 
easily  proved  whether  he  who  speaks  has  only  been  exer¬ 
cised  in  the  parade  of  declamation,  or  has  devoted  himself 
to  oratory  after  having  been  instructed  in  all  liberal  knowl¬ 
edge.” 

******* 

XIX.  “  Certain  men  of  eloquence  at  Athens,  versed  in 
public  affairs  and  judicial  pleadings,  disputed  on  the  other 
side ;  among  whom  was  Menedemus,  lately  my  guest  at 
Rome ;  but  when  he  had  observed  that  there  is  a  sort  of 
wisdom  which  is  employed  in  inquiring  into  the  methods 
of  settling  and  managing  governments,  he,  though  a 
ready  speaker,  was  promptly  attacked  by  the  other,  a  man 
of  abundant  learning,  and  of  an  almost  incredible  variety 
and  copiousness  of  argument ;  who  maintained  that  every 
portion  of  such  wisdom  must  be  derived  from  philosophy, 
and  that  whatever  was  established  in  a  state  concerning 
the  immortal  gods,  the  discipline  of  youth,  justice,  patience, 
temperance,  moderation  in  everything,  and.  other  matters, 
without  which  states  would  either  not  subsist  at  all,  or  be 
corrupt  in  morals,  was  nowhere  to  be  found  in  the  petty 
treatises  of  the  rhetoricians.  For  if  those  teachers  of 
rhetoric  included  in  their  art  such  a  multitude  of  the  most 
important  subjects,  why,  he  asked,  were  their  books 
crammed  with  rules  about  proems  and  perorations,  and 
such  trifles  (for  so  he  called  them),  while  about  the.  model¬ 
ling  of  states,  the  composition  of  laws,  about  equity,  jus¬ 
tice,  integrity,  about  mastering  the  appetites,  and  forming 
the  morals  of  mankind,  not  one  single  syllable  was  to  be 


The 

argument 

that 

philosophy 
is  the  end  of 
education. 


How  oratory 
is  viewed  by 
the 

philosopher. 


In  their  view 
eloquence 
is  due  to 
philosophi¬ 
cal  knowl¬ 
edge  and 
natural 
ability. 


438  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

found  in  their  pages  ?  Their  precept  she  ridiculed  in  such 
a  manner,  as  to  show  that  the  teachers  were  not  only 
destitute  of  the  knowledge  which  they  arrogated  to  them¬ 
selves,  but  that  they  did  not  even  know  the  proper  art  and 
method  of  speaking;  for  he  thought  that  the  principal 
business  of  an  orator  was,  that  he  might  appear  to  those 
to  whom  he  spoke  to  be  such  as  he  would  wish  to  appear 
(that  this  was  to  be  attained  by  a  life  of  good  reputation, 
on  which  those  teachers  of  rhetoric  had  laid  down  nothing 
in  their  precepts);  and  that  the  minds  of  the  audience 
should  be  affected  in  such  a  manner  as  the  orator  would 
have  them  to  be  affected,  an  object,  also,  which  could  by 
no  means  be  attained,  unless  the  speaker  understood  by 
what  methods,  by  what  arguments,  and  by  what  sort 
of  language  the  minds  of  men  are  moved  in  any  particular 
direction ;  but  that  these  matters  were  involved  and  con¬ 
cealed  in  the  prof oundest  doctrines  of  philosophy,  which 
these  rhetoricians  had  not  touched  even  with  the  extremity 
of  their  lips.  These  assertions  Menedemus  endeavoured 
to  refute,  but  rather  by  authorities  than  by  arguments ; 
for,  repeating  from  memory  many  noble  passages  from 
the  orations  of  Demosthenes,  he  showed  that  that  orator, 
while  he  swayed  the  minds  of  judges  or  of  the  people  by 
his  eloquence,  was  not  ignorant  by  what  means  he  attained 
his  end,  which  Charmadas  denied  that  any  one  could 
know  without  philosophy. 

XX.  To  this  Charmadas  replied,  that  he  did  not  deny 
that  Demosthenes  was  possessed  of  consummate  ability 
and  the  utmost  energy  of  eloquence ;  but  whether  he  had 
these  powers  from  natural  genius,  or  because  he  was,  as 
was  acknowledged,  a  diligent  hearer  of  Plato,  it  was  not 
what  Demosthenes  could  do,  but  what  the  rhetoricians 
taught,  that  was  the  subject  of  inquiry.  Sometimes  too 
he  was  carried  so  far  by  the  drift  of  his  discourse,  as  to 
maintain  that  there  was  no  art  at  all  in  speaking ;  and 
having  shown  by  various  arguments  that  we  are  so  formed 
by  nature  as  to  be  able  to  flatter,  and  to  insinuate  our¬ 
selves,  as  suppliants,  into  the  favour  of  those  from  whom 
we  wish  to  obtain  anything,  as  well  as  to  terrify  our  ene¬ 
mies  by  menaces,  to  relate  matters  of  fact,  to  confirm  what 
we  assert,  to  refute  what  is  said  against  us,  and,  finally, 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  439 


to  use  entreaty  or  lamentation ;  particulars  in  which  the 
whole  faculties  of  the  orator  are  employed ;  and  that  prac¬ 
tice  and  exercise  sharpened  the  understanding,  and  pro¬ 
duced  fluency  of  speech,  he  rested  his  cause,  in  conclusion, 
on  a  multitude  of  examples  that  he  adduced ;  for  first,  as 
if  stating  an  indisputable  fact,  he  affirmed  that  no  writer 
on  the  art  of  rhetoric  was  ever  even  moderately  eloquent, 
going  back  as  far  as  I  know  not  what  Corax  and  Tisias, 
who,  he  said,  appeared  to  be  the  inventors  and  first  authors 
of  rhetorical  science ;  and  then  named  a  vast  number  of 
the  most  eloquent  men  who  had  neither  learned,  nor  cared 
to  understand  the  rules  of  art,  and  amongst  whom,  (whether 
in  jest,  or  because  he  thought,  or  had  heard  something  to 
that  effect,)  he  instanced  me  as  one  who  had  received 
none  of  their  instructions,  and  yet,  as  he  said,  had  some 
abilities  as  a  speaker ;  of  which  two  observations  I  readily 
granted  the  truth  of  one,  that  I  had  never  been  instructed, 
but  thought  that  in  the  other  he  was  either  joking  with 
me,  or  was  under  some  mistake.  But  he  denied  there  was 
any  art,  except  such  as  lay  in  things  that  were  known  and 
thoroughly  understood,  things  tending  to  the  same  object, 
and  never  misleading ;  but  that  everything  treated  by  the 
orators  was  doubtful  and  uncertain  ;  as  it  was  uttered  by 
those  who  did  not  fully  understand  it,  and  was  heard 
by  them  to  whom  knowledge  was  not  meant  to  be  com¬ 
municated,  but  merely  false,  or  at  least  obscure  notions, 
intended  to  live  in  their  minds  only  for  a  short  time.  In 
short,  he  seemed  bent  on  convincing  me  that  there  was  no 
art  of  speaking,  and  that  no  one  could  speak  skilfully,  or 
so  as  fully  to  illustrate  a  subject,  but  one  who  had  attained 
that  knowledge  which  is  delivered  by  the  most  learned  of 
the  philosophers.  On  which  occasions  Charmadas  used 
to  say,  with  a  passionate  admiration  of  your  genius,  Cras- 
sus,  that  I  appeared  to  him  very  easy  in  listening,  and  you 
most  pertinacious  in  disputation. 

XXI.  “Then  it  was  that  I,  swayed  by  this  opinion,  re¬ 
marked  in  a  little  treatise  which  got  abroad,  and  into  people’s 
hands  without  my  knowledge  and  against  my  will,  that  I  had 
known  many  good  speakers,  but  never  yet  any  one  that 
was  truly  eloquent ;  for  I  accounted  him  a  good  speaker , 
who  could  express  his  thoughts  with  accuracy  and  perspi- 


Cicero’s 
earlier 
distinction 
between  the 
good 

speaker  and 
the  orator. 


44°  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


cuity,  according  to  the  ordinary  judgment  of  mankind,  before 
an  audience  of  moderate  capacity  ;  but  I  considered  him 
alone  eloquent ,  who  could  in  a  more  admirable  and  noble 
manner  amplify  and  adorn  whatever  subjects  he  chose,  and 
who  embraced  in  thought  and  memory  all  the  principles  of 
everything  relating  to  oratory. 

******* 


Cicero 
describes  his 
own 

education. 


First  the 
common¬ 
places  of 
rhetorical 
teaching. 


XXXI.  .  .  .  “  In  the  first  place,  I  will  not  deny  that,  as 
becomes  a  man  well  born  and  liberally  educated,  I  learned 
those  trite  and  common  precepts  of  teachers  in  general ; 
first,  that  it  is  the  business  of  an  orator  to  speak  in  a  man¬ 
ner  adapted  to  persuade ;  next,  that  every  speech  is  either 
upon  a  question  concerning  a  matter  in  general,  without 
specification  of  persons  or  times,  or  concerning  a  matter 
referring  to  certain  persons  and  times.  But  that,  in  either 
case,  whatever  falls  under  controversy,  the  question  with  re¬ 
gard  to  it  is  usually,  whether  such  a  thing  has  been  done,  or, 
if  it  has  been  done,  of  what  nature  it  is,  or  by  what  name  it 
should  be  called  ;  or,  as  some  add,  whether  it  seems  to  have 
been  done  rightly  or  not.  That  controversies  arise  also  on 
the  interpretation  of  writing,  in  which  anything  has  been  ex¬ 
pressed.  ambiguously,  or  contradictorily,  or  so  that  what  is 
written  is  at  variance  with  the  writer’s  evident  intention;  and 
that  there  are  certain  lines  of  argument  adapted  to  all  these 
cases.  But  that  of  such  subjects  as  are  distinct  from  general 
questions,  part  come  under  the  head  of  judicial  proceedings, 
part  under  that  of  deliberations ;  and  that  there  is  a  third 
kind  which  is  employed  in  praising  or  censuring  particular 
persons.  That  there  are  also  certain  commonplaces  on 
which  we  may  insist  in  judicial  proceedings,  in  which 
equity  is  the  object ;  others,  which  we  may  adopt  in  delib¬ 
erations,  all  which  are  to  be  directed  to  the  advantage  of 
those  to  whom  we  give  counsel ;  others  in  panegyric,  in 
which  all  must  be  referred  to  the  dignity  of  the  persons 
commended.  That  since  all  the  business  and  art  of  an  ora¬ 
tor  is  divided  into  five  parts,  he  ought  first  to  find  out  what 
he  should  say  ;  next,  to  dispose  and  arrange  his  matter,  not 
only  in  a  certain  order,  but  with  a  sort  of  power  and  judg¬ 
ment  ;  then  to  clothe  and  deck  his  thoughts  with  language; 
then  to  secure  them  in  his  memory ;  and  lastly,  to  deliver 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  441 

them  with  dignity  and  grace.  I  had  learned  and  under¬ 
stood  also,  that  before  we  enter  upon  the  main  subject,  the 
minds  of  the  audience  should  be  conciliated  by  an  exor¬ 
dium;  next,  that  the  case  should  be  clearly  stated;  then, 
that  the  point  in  controversy  should  be  established ;  then, 
that  what  we  maintain  should  be  supported  by  proof, 
and  that  whatever  was  said  on  the  other  side  should  be  re¬ 
futed  ;  and  that,  in  the  conclusion  of  our  speech,  whatever 
was  in  our  favour  should  be  amplified  and  enforced,  and 
whatever  made  “  for  our  adversaries  should  be  weakened 
and  invalidated. ” 

XXXII.  “  I  had  heard  also  what  is  taught  about  the  Accepted 
costume  of  a  speech ;  in  regard  to  which  it  is  first  directed  precepts 
that  we  should  speak  correctly  and  in  pure  Latin  ;  next,  intel-  rhetorical8 
ligibly  and  with  perspicuity  ;  then  gracefully  ;  then  suitably  study, 
to  the  dignity  of  the  subject,  and  as  it  were  becomingly; 
and  I  had  made  myself  acquainted  with  the  rules  relating 
to  every  particular.  Moreover,  I  had  seen  art  applied  to 
those  things  which  are  properly  endowments  of  nature ; 
for  I  had  gone  over  some  precepts  concerning  action,  and 
some  concerning  artificial  memory,  which  were  short  indeed, 
but  requiring  much  exercise ;  matters  on  which  almost  all 
the  learning  of  those  artificial  orators  is  employed ;  and  if 
I  should  say  that  it  is  of  no  assistance,  I  should  say  what 
is  not  true ;  for  it  conveys  some  hints  to  admonish  the  ora¬ 
tor,  as  it  were,  to  what  he  should  refer  each  part  of  his 
speech,  and  to  what  points  he  may  direct  his  view,  so  as 
not  to  wander  from  the  object  which  he  has  proposed  to 
himself.  But  I  consider  that  with  regard  to  all  precepts 
the  case  is  this,  not  that  orators  by  adhering  to  them  have 
obtained  distinction  in  eloquence ;  but  that  certain  persons 
have  noticed  what  men  of  eloquence  practised  of  their  own 
accord,  and  formed  rules  accordingly ;  so  that  eloquence 
has  not  sprung  from  art,  but  art  from  eloquence ;  not  that, 
as  I  said  before,  I  entirely  reject  art,  for  it  is,  though  not 
essentially  necessary  to  oratory,  yet  proper  for  a  man  of 
liberal  education  to  learn.  And  by  you,  my  young  friends, 
some  preliminary  exercise  must  be  undergone ;  though 
indeed  you  are  already  on  the  course ;  but  those  who  are 
to  enter  upon  a  race,  and  those  who  are  preparing  for  what 
is  to  be  done  in  the  forum,  as  their  field  of  battle,  may  alike 


Methods  of 
rhetorical 
instruction 
approved. 


442  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

previously  learn,  and  try  their  powers,  by  practising  in 
sport.”  “That  sort  of  exercise,”  said  Sulpicius,  “is  just 
what  we  wanted  to  understand;  but  we  desire  to  hear  more 
at  large  what  you  have  briefly  and  cursorily  delivered  con¬ 
cerning  art ;  though  such  matters  are  not  strange  even  to 
us.  Of  that  subject,  however,  we  shall  inquire  hereafter; 
at  present  we  wish  to  know  your  sentiments  on  exercise.” 

XXXIII.  “I  like  that  method,”  replied  Crassus,  “which 
you  are  accustomed  to  practise,  namely,  to  lay  down  a  case 
similar  to  those  which  are  brought  on  in  the  forum,  and  to 
speak  upon  it,  as  nearly  as  possible,  as  if  it  were  a  real 
case.  But  in  such  efforts  the  generality  of  students  exer¬ 
cise  only  their  voice  (and  not  even  that  skilfully),  and  try 
their  strength  of  lungs,  and  volubility  of  tongue,  and  please 
themselves  with  a  torrent  of  their  own  words  ;  in  which 
exercise  what  they  have  heard  deceives  them,  that  men  by 
speaking  succeed  in  becoming  speakers.  For  it  is  truly 
said  also,  That  men  by  speaking  badly  make  sure  of 
becoming  bad  speakers.  In  those  exercises,  therefore, 
although  it  be  useful  even  frequently  to  speak  on  the  sud¬ 
den,  yet  it  is  more  advantageous,  after  taking  time  to  con¬ 
sider,  to  speak  with  greater  preparation  and  accuracy.  But 
the  chief  point  of  all  is  that  which  (to  say  the  truth)  we 
hardly  ever  practise  (for  it  requires  great  labour,  which 
most  of  us  avoid);  I  mean,  to  write  as  much  as  possible. 
Writing  is  said  to  be  the  best  and  most  excellent  modeller 
and  teacher  of  oratory  ;  and  not  without  reason  ;  for  if  what 
is  meditated  and  considered  easily  surpasses  sudden  and  ex¬ 
temporary  speech,  a  constant  and  diligent  habit  of  writing 
will  surely  be  of  more  effect  than  meditation  and  considera¬ 
tion  itself;  since  all  the  arguments  relating  to  the  subject 
on  which  we  write,  whether  they  are  suggested  by  art,  or 
by  a  certain  power  of  genius  and  understanding,  will  pre¬ 
sent  themselves,  and  occur  to  us,  while  we  examine  and 
contemplate  it  in  the  full  light  of  our  intellect ;  and  all  the 
thoughts  and  words,  which  are  the  most  expressive  of  their 
kind,  must  of  necessity  come  under  and  submit  to  the  keen¬ 
ness  of  our  judgment  while  writing;  and  a  fair  arrange¬ 
ment  and  collocation  of  the  words  is  effected  by  writing, 
in  a  certain  rhythm  and  measure,  not  poetical,  but  oratori¬ 
cal.  Such  are  the  qualities  which  bring  applause  and 


The  Orator  as  the  Ideal  of  Education  443 


admiration  to  good  orators ;  nor  will  any  man  ever  attain 
them,  unless  after  long  and  great  practice  in  writing,  how¬ 
ever  resolutely  he  may  have  exercised  himself  in  extem¬ 
porary  speeches  ;  and  he  who  comes  to  speak  after  practice 
in  writing  brings  this  advantage  with  him,  that  though  he 
speak  at  the  call  of  the  moment,  yet  what  he  says  will  bear 
a  resemblance  to  something  written ;  and  if  ever,  when  he 
comes  to  speak,  he  brings  anything  with  him  in  writing, 
the  rest  of  his  speech,  when  he  departs  from  what  is  writ¬ 
ten,  will  flow  on  in  a  similar  strain.  As,  when  a  boat  has 
once  been  impelled  forward,  though  the  rowers  suspend 
their  efforts,  the  vessel  herself  still  keeps  her  motion  and 
course  during  the  intermission  of  the  impulse  and  force  of 
the  oars ;  so,  in  a  continued  stream  of  oratory,  when  writ¬ 
ten  matter  fails,  the  rest  of  the  speech  maintains  a  similar 
flow,  being  impelled  by  the  resemblance  and  force  acquired 
from  what  was  written. 

XXXIV.  “  But  in  my  daily  exercises  I  used,  when  a 
youth,  to  adopt  chiefly  that  method  which  I  knew  that 
Caius  Carbo,  my  adversary,  generally  practised ;  which 
was,  that,  having  selected  some  nervous  piece  of  poetry,  or 
read  over  such  a  portion  of  a  speech  as  I  could  retain  in 
my  memory,  I  used  to  declaim  upon  what  I  had  been  read¬ 
ing  in  other  words,  chosen  with  all  the  judgment  that  I 
possessed.  But  at  length  I  perceived  that  in  that  method 
there  was  this  inconvenience,  that  Ennius,  if  I  exercised 
myself  on  his  verses,  or  Gracchus,  if  I  laid  one  of  his  ora¬ 
tions  before  me,  had  forestalled  such  words  as  were 
peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  subject,  and  such  as  were  the 
most  elegant  and  altogether  the  best ;  so  that,  if  I  used  the 
same  words,  it  profited  nothing ;  if  others,  it  was  even 
prejudicial  to  me,  as  I  habituated  myself  to  use  such  as 
were  less  eligible.  Afterwards  I  thought  proper,  and  con¬ 
tinued  the  practice  at  a  rather  more  advanced  age,  to 
translate  the  orations  of  the  best  Greek  orators ;  by  fixing 
upon  which  I  gained  this  advantage,  that  while  I  rendered 
into  Latin  what  I  had  read  in  Greek,  I  not  only  used  the 
best  words,  and  yet  such  as  were  of  common  occurrence, 
but  also  formed  some  words  by  imitation,  which  would  be 
new  to  our  countrymen,  taking  care,  however,  that  they 
were  unobjectionable. 


Relative 
merits  of 
declamation 
and 

translation. 


444  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Subject- 
matter  of 
study. 


“  As  to  the  exertion  and  exercise  of  the  voice,  of  the 
breath,  of  the  whole  body,  and  of  the  tongue  itself,  they  do 
not  so  much  require  art  as  labour  ;  but  in  those  matters  we 
ought  to  be  particularly  careful  whom  we  imitate  and  whom 
we  would  wish  to  resemble.  Not  only  orators  are  to  be 
observed  by  us,  but  even  actors,  lest  by  vicious  habits  we 
contract  any  awkwardness  or  ungracefulness.  The  mem¬ 
ory  is  also  to  be  exercised,  by  learning  accurately  by  heart 
as  many  of  our  own  writings,  and  those  of  others,  as  we 
can.  In  exercising  the  memory,  too,  I  shall  not  object  if 
you  accustom  yourself  to  adopt  that  plan  of  referring  to 
places  and  figures  which  is  taught  in  treatises  on  the  art. 
Your  language  must  then  be  brought  forth  from  this 
domestic  and  retired  exercise,  into  the  midst  of  the  field,  into 
the  dust  and  clamour,  into  the  camp  and  military  array  of  the 
forum;  you  must  acquire  practice  in  everything;  you  must 
try  the  strength  of  your  understanding ;  and  your  retired 
lucubrations  must  be  exposed  to  the  light  of  reality.  The 
poets  must  also  be  studied ;  an  acquaintance  must  be 
formed  with  history ;  the  writers  and  teachers  in  all  the 
liberal  arts  and  sciences  must  be  read,  and  turned  over, 
and  must,  for  the  sake  of  exercise,  be  praised,  interpreted, 
corrected,  censured,  refuted  ;  you  must  dispute  on  both 
sides  of  every  question  ;  and  whatever  may  seem  maintain¬ 
able  on  any  point,  must  be  brought  forward  and  illustrated. 
The  civil  law  must  be  thoroughly  studied  ;  laws  in  general 
must  be  understood ;  all  antiquity  must  be  known  ;  the 
usages  of  the  senate,  the  nature  of  our  government,  the 
rights  of  our  allies,  our  treaties  and  conventions,  and  what¬ 
ever  concerns  the  interests  of  the  state,  must  be  learned. 
A  certain  intellectual  grace  must  also  be  extracted  from 
every  kind  of  refinement,  with  which,  as  with  salt,  every 
oration  must  be  seasoned.  I  have  poured  forth  to  you  all 
I  had  to  say,  and  perhaps  any  citizen  whom  you  had  laid 
hold  of  in  any  company  whatever,  would  have  replied  to 
your  inquiries  on  these  subjects  equally  well.” 


VII.  SCIENTIFIC  EXPOSITION  OF  ROMAN 

EDUCATION 


Period  and  Author.  —  The  De  Institutione  Oratoria  was 
published  in  the  year  96  a.d.  It  is  a  systematic  summary 
of  the  views  of  education  accepted  during  the  last  century 
of  the  Republic  and  the  first  century  of  the  Empire.  The 
former  period  is  included  because  many  of  the  views  of 
the  Institutes  are  avowedly  not  original,  but  represent  the 
consensus  of  opinion  for  the  entire  period,  Cicero  especially 
being  accepted  as  the  authority.  Quintilian’s  experience 
as  a  teacher  extended  from  59  a.d.  to  the  publication  of 
the  work,  —  not  an  unbroken  experience,  for  portions  of 
that  time  were  devoted  to  the  work  of  the  advocate,  and 
several  years  to  the  study  and  labor  incident  to  the  prepa¬ 
ration  of  the  Institutes.  The'  period  represented  is,  then, 
practically  the  third,  that  of  the  Hellenized  Roman  educa¬ 
tion  in  its  prime. 

Marcus  Fabius  Quintilianus  was  born  at  Calagurris  in 
Spain  about  35  a.d.  He  was  educated  as  an  orator  in 
Rome,  but  returned  in  59  a.d.  to  practice  in  the  provinces. 
After  ten  years  he  returned  to  the  capital  in  the  suite  of 
the  Emperor  Galba.  Here  he  practised  as  an  advocate, 
and  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian  opened  a  public  school, 
being  the  first  to  receive  state  support  through  the  prac¬ 
tice  instituted  by  that  emperor.  Among  his  contempo¬ 
raries  Quintilian  was  noted  for  having  acquired  a  large 
fortune  by  teaching.  He  was  finally  rewarded  with  a  con- 

445 


446  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

sulship  by  the  Emperor  Domitian  for  his  great  success  as 
a  teacher  and  for  his  influence  on  his  times.  He  was  the 
most  cultured  as  well  as  the  most  successful  of  Roman 
teachers.  His  death  occurred  at  about  the  close  of  the 
century.  Besides  the  Institutes ,  there  is  extant  a  collec¬ 
tion  of  school  exercises  or  declamations,  many  of  them 

the  work  of  Quintilian,  the  remainder  the  work  of  his 

% 

pupils. 

The  Source.  —  Cicero’s  exposition  of  Roman  education 
is  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  orator  and  practical  man  of 
the  world ;  Quintilian’s  is  from  the  viewpoint  of  an  edu¬ 
cator.  In  the  De  Oratore  we  have  the  ideas  of  an  educated 
man  concerning  the  purpose  and  methods  of  a  system  of 
education  through  which  he  himself  has  gone  and  the 
results  of  which  he  has  tested  by  years  of  experience; 
in  the  Institutes  we  have  the  view  of  a  most  successful 
educator  of  twenty  years’  experience  who  has  made  him¬ 
self  familiar  with  the  literature  of  his  country  and  of  his 
subject,  whether  presented  from  the  Roman  or  the  Gre¬ 
cian  point  of  view.  The  very  purpose  of  the  work  was 
to  bring  into  harmony  the  conflicting  views  of  previous 
writers  and  to  systematize  accepted  views  and  approved 
or  common  practices.  While  the  view  of  education  of 
this  period  and  of  this  work  is  somewhat  narrow,  yet 
every  phase  of  education  receives  some  attention,  and 
every  problem  some  consideration.  There  is  to  be  found 
in  the  study  of  the  Institutes  little  of  such  inspiration 
as  results  from  consideration  of  almost  any  of  the  similar 
works  of  the  Greeks.  It  is  a  very  practical,  prosaic  pres¬ 
entation  of  the  education  of  a  matter-of-fact  people  that 
had  borrowed  the  form  without  imbibing  the  spirit  of 
Grecian  culture.  Both  as  to  form  and  content,  it  is  most 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  447 

typically  Roman ;  and  in  its  constructive  literary  form  at 
least  it  is  superior  to  the  Greek. 

The  Institutes  consists  of  twelve  books,  from  the  first, 
second,  and  last  of  which  the  selections  have  been  made. 
The  first  book  relates  to  the  elements  of  instruction  under 
the  teachers  of  grammar  and  of  rhetoric,  and  to  the  nature 
of  rhetoric  itself  ;  that  is,  to  secondary  and  higher  education. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  work  is  a  technical  treatise  on 
rhetoric  itself  as  constituting  the  whole  scope  of  second¬ 
ary  and  higher  education,  the  purpose  of  which  was  the 
production  of  the  orator.  Books  III.  to  VII.  inclusive  are 
devoted  to  the  study  of  invention;  Books  VIII.  to  XI. 
inclusive,  to  the  discussion  of  elocution,  including  memory 
and  pronunciation.  The  twelfth  book  is  devoted  to  the 
consideration  of  the  orator  himself,  —  “  what  his  morals 
ought  to  be ;  what  should  be  his  practice  in  understand¬ 
ing,  studying,  and  pleading  causes ;  what  should  be  his 
style  of  eloquence ;  what  termination  there  should  be  to 
his  pleading  and  what  may  be  his  employments  after  its 
termination.”  This  work  became  the  final  and  standard 
treatise  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  Roman  oratory,  and 
is  the  most  elaborate  and  complete  treatise  on  Roman 
education  ever  written.  The  selections  given  include  all 
passages  that  bear  upon  education  in  general,  omitting 
such  portions  as  have  to  do  merely  with  the  technique  of 
grammar  and  rhetoric. 

General  Character  of  the  Educational  Content  of  the 
Institutes .  —  The  general  conception  of  education  is  the 
same  as  that  of  Cicero :  the  aim  of  education  is  to  produce 
the  orator.  This  term  is  of  much  wider  significance  than 
at  the  present  day,  being  then  identical  with  the  cultivated 
man.  Quintilian’s  definition  of  the  orator  is  “  the  good 


448  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

man  skilled  in  speaking.”  The  Romans  draw  a  definite 
contrast  between  the  orator  and  the  philosopher,  the  only 
rival  of  the  orator  as  the  type  of  the  educated  man.  The 
philosopher  cannot  be  the  Roman  ideal,  for  he  is  not  inter¬ 
ested  in  the  practical  affairs  of  life.  He  is  not  “  the  good 
man,”  however  skilled  in  speaking  he  may  be.  Moreover, 
philosophers  are  rejected  because  they  withdraw  them¬ 
selves  from  public  occupations.  It  is  by  insisting  upon 
this  distinction  that  the  Romans  avoid  the  disintegrating 
effects  of  the  individualizing  tendencies  of  such  a  period 
in  social  and  educational  evolution  as  characterized  the 
Greeks  in  a  similar  period.  Another  objection  urged  by 
Quintilian  against  making  philosophy  the  aim  of  educa¬ 
tion  is  that  philosophy  could  be  simulated  while  elo¬ 
quence  could  not.  It  is  this  breadth  of  view  that  gives 
to  the  teachings  of  Quintilian  much  of  their  educational 
significance.  In  contrast  with  the  extremely  technical 
and  narrow  discussions  on  rhetoric  and  the  art  of  oratory 
which  so  abounded  at  this  time,  and  on  the  other  hand 
with  the  very  general  and  individualistic  views  of  the 
popular  philosophies  of  the  times,  whether  Stoic,  Cynic, 
Epicurean,  or  Eclectic,  was  this  very  definite  view  of 
Quintilian  that  education  is  something  which  acts  upon 
the  whole  intellectual  and  moral  nature,  and  something 
the  object  of  which  is  the  production  of  the  effective 
moral  man  in  practical  life. 

Such  an  education  as  that  described  by  Quintilian  is  a 
formal  institutionalized  process ;  it  is  the  work  of  instruc¬ 
tion  given  in  schools,  preferably  public  schools.  It  is  wholly 
different  from  the  old  Roman  education.  Yet  this  pre¬ 
supposition  of  his  should  be  kept  in  mind :  “  It  is  to  be 
stated,  however,  in  the  first  place,  that  precepts  and  trea- 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  449 

tises  on  art  are  of  no  avail  without  the  assistance  of 
nature ;  and  these  instructions,  therefore,  are  not  written 
for  him  to  whom  talent  is  wanting,  any  more  than  treatises 
on  agriculture  for  barren  ground.”  As  with  the  Greeks, 
then,  education  depends  upon  the  three  factors,  nature, 
training,  and  instruction.  The  treatise  is  almost  wholly 
devoted  to  the  last,  with  incidental  reference  to  the  second. 

The  content  of  such  an  education  was  largely  gram¬ 
matical  and  rhetorical.  Hence  the  larger  part  of  this 
educational  treatise  has  no  longer  vital  interest,  since  the 
conception  of  education  has  changed  so  radically.  But 
the  general  treatment  is  yet  of  interest,  and  the  spirit  is 
independent  of  either  content  or  purpose,  being  that  of  a 
liberal  education  of  any  age.  In  addition  to  the  grammatical 
and  rhetorical  training  and  instruction,  a  broad  literary  edu¬ 
cation  is,  according  to  Quintilian,  essential.  The  tenth  book 
of  the  Institutes ,  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  literature,  is  a  critique  which  has  few  equals.  The 
spirit  and  the  breadth  of  this  aspect  of  education  required  by 
Quintilian  is  of  the  best.  The  grammatical  and  rhetorical 
instruction  is  to  be  supplemented  by  a  brief  study  of  music, 
astronomy,  geometry,  and  philosophy.  Such  studies,  how¬ 
ever,  are  incidental,  and  are  recommended  because  con¬ 
tributory  to  success  as  an  orator.  In  the  same  manner 
the  prospective  orator  must  have  a  general  knowledge  of 
all  subjects  —  must  be  a  well-informed,  though  not  neces¬ 
sarily  an  erudite,  man.  Here,  however,  there  is  no  ap¬ 
proach  to  the  Grecian  conception  of  the  value  of  music 
and  the  mathematical  sciences  in  the  development  of  the 
mind. 

In  the  first  and  second  books,  Quintilian  deals  in  detail 
with  the  methods,  subject-matter,  and  organization  of 


450  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

elementary  and  secondary  education.  Many  of  his  points 
of  view  are  essentially  modern.  All  are  marked  by  the 
same  judicious  spirit.  He  would  have  the  work  of  the 
school  fitted  to  the  disposition  and  ability  of  the  child; 
he  calls  upon  teachers  to  study  the  characteristics  of 
their  pupils ;  he  opposes  corporal  punishment,  and  ad¬ 
vises  attractive  rather  than  compulsory  methods ;  he 
approves  of  education  in  public  schools,  rather  than  in  the 
home  —  a  preference  due  largely  to  the  moral  corrup¬ 
tion  of  the  times,  but  also  to  the  inability  of  the  parent 
to  rival  the  work  of  a  successful  teacher,  even  in  the 
supervision  and  selection  of  tutors. 

Though  Roman  education  after  the  time  of  Quintilian 
did  not  remain  upon  the  high  plane  upon  which  he  placed 
it,  there  was  probably  no  marked  decay  for  at  least  a  cen¬ 
tury  or  even  two  centuries  later.  Some  of  the  material 
presented  bears  upon  this  point.  Both  Pliny  the  Younger 
and  Tacitus  were  pupils  of  Quintilian,  and  their  testimony 
refers  to  about  this  time.  The  form,  methods,  and  content 
of  education  remained  about  the  same  throughout  the 
imperial  period,  or  at  least  until  the  imperial  interests 
were  centred  in  the  East.  But  in  the  spirit  and  purpose 
of  education  there  was  a  marked  and  immediate  decline. 
In  fact,  if  we  may  accept  the  testimony  of  Tacitus, 
Quintilian  was  rather  stemming  the  tide  in  this  respect. 
The  Institutes  may  be  taken  as  descriptive  of  education 
throughout  the  imperial  period  so  far  as  general  aim,  form, 
and  method  are  concerned ;  and,  in  addition,  as  repre¬ 
sentative  of  the  general  conception  and  spirit  of  Hellen- 
ized  education  at  its  best.  It  forms  the  most  thorough, 
systematic  and  scientific  treatment  of  education  to  be 
found  in  classical  literature,  whether  Greek  or  Roman. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  45 1 
Selections  from  the  Institutes  of  Oratory ,  by  Quintilian 1 

BOOK  I.,  CHAPTER  I 

1.  Let  a  father,  then,  as  soon  as  his  son  is  born,  con¬ 
ceive,  first  of  all,  the  best  possible  hopes  of  him ;  for  he 
will  thus  grow  the  more  solicitous  about  his  improvement 
from  the  very  beginning  ;  since  it  is  a  complaint  without 
foundation  that  “  to  very  few  people  is  granted  the  faculty 
of  comprehending  what  is  imparted  to  them,  and  that  most, 
through  dulness  of  understanding,  lose  their  labour  and 
their  time.”  For,  on  the  contrary,  you  will  find  the  greater 
number  of  men  both  ready  in  conceiving  and  quick  in 
learning ;  since  such  quickness  is  natural  to  man  ;  and  as 
birds  are  born  to  fly,  horses  to  run,  and  wild  beasts  to  show 
fierceness,  so  to  us  peculiarly  belong  activity  and  sagacity 
of  understanding ;  whence  the  origin  of  the  mind  is 
thought  to  be  from  heaven.  2.  But  dull  and  unteachable 
persons  are  no  more  produced  in  the  course  of  nature 
than  are  persons  marked  by  monstrosity  and  deformities; 
such  are  certainly  but  few.  It  will  be  a  proof  of  this 
assertion,  that,  among  boys,  good  promise  is  shown  in  the 
far  greater  number;  and,  if  it  passes  off  in  the  progress 
of  time,  it  is  manifest  that  it  was  not  natural  ability,  but 
care,  that  was  wanting.  3.  But  one  surpasses  another, 
you  will  say,  in  ability.  I  grant  that  this  is  true  ;  but  only 
so  far  as  to  accomplish  more  or  less ;  whereas  there  is  no 
one  who  has  not  gained  something  by  study.  Let  him 
who  is  convinced  of  this  truth,  bestow,  as  soon  as  he 
becomes  a  parent,  the  most  vigilant  possible  care  on 
cherishing  the  hopes  of  a  future  orator. 

4.  Before  all  things,  let  the  talk  of  the  child’s  nurses 
not  be  ungrammatical.  Chrysippus2  wished  them,  if 
possible,  to  be  women  of  some  knowledge ;  at  any  rate 
he  would  have  the  best,  as  far  as  circumstances  would 
allow,  chosen.  To  their  morals,  doubtless,  attention  is 
first  to  be  paid ;  but  let  them  also  speak  with  propriety. 

1  These  selections  are  made  from  the  Watson  translation  of  the  Bohn 
Library  Series,  by  special  permission  of  Messers.  Bell  and  Sons. 

2  A  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Stoic  school  who  lived  282-206  B.C.  A  few 
fragments  of  his  writings  yet  remain. 


General 
capacity  of 
children. 


Importance 
of  early 
training  by 
nurses, 


parents, 


pedagogues. 


452  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

5.  It  is  they  that  the  child  will  hear  first ;  it  is  their  words 
that  he  will  try  to  form  by  imitation.  We  are  by  nature 
most  tenacious  of  what  we  have  imbibed  in  our  infant 
years  ;  as  the  flavour,  with  which  you  scent  vessels  when 
new,  remains  in  them ;  nor  can  the  colours  of  wool,  for 
which  its  plain  whiteness  has  been  exchanged,  be  effaced  ; 
and  those  very  habits,  which  are  of  a  more  objectionable 
nature,  adhere  with  the  greater  tenacity;  for  good  ones 
are  easily  changed  for  the  worse,  but  when  will  you 
change  bad  ones  into  good  ?  Let  the  child  not  be  accus¬ 
tomed,  therefore,  even  while  he  is  yet  an  infant,  to  phrase¬ 
ology  which  must  be  unlearned. 

6.  In  parents  I  should  wish  that  there  should  be  as 
much  learning  as  possible.  Nor  do  I  speak,  indeed, 
merely  of  fathers  ;  for  we  have  heard  that  Cornelia,  the 
mother  of  the  Gracchi  (whose  very  learned  writing  in  her 
letters  has  come  down  to  posterity),  contributed  greatly 
to  their  eloquence ;  the  daughter  of  Laelius  1  is  said  to  have 
exhibited  her  father’s  elegance  in  her  conversation ;  and 
the  oration  of  the  daughter  of  Quintus  Hortensius,2  deliv¬ 
ered  before  the  Triumviri,  is  read  not  merely  as  an  honour 
to  her  sex.  7.  Nor  let  those  parents,  who  have  not  had 
the  fortune  to  get  learning  themselves,  bestow  the  less 
care  on  the  instruction  of  their  children,  but  let  them,  on 
this  very  account,  be  more  solicitous  as  to  other  particulars. 

Of  the  boys,  among  whom  he  who  is  destined  to  this 
prospect  is  to  be  educated,  the  same  may  be  said  as  con¬ 
cerning  nurses. 

8.  Of  pczdagogi  this  further  may  be  said,  that  they 
should  either  be  men  of  acknowledged  learning,  which  I 
should  wish  to  be  the  first  object,  or  that  they  should  be 
conscious  of  their  want  of  learning;  for  none  are  more 
pernicious  than  those  who,  having  gone  some  little  beyond 
the  first  elements,  clothe  themselves  in  a  mistaken  persua- 

1  Surnamed  Sapiens,  was  born  186  B.c.  He  had  two  daughters,  one  of 
whom  was  married  to  Caius  Fannius,  and  the  other  to  Mucius  Sczevola.  Quin¬ 
tilian  evidently  refers  to  the  latter. 

2  Quintus  Hortensius  was  a  distinguished  Roman  orator  who  lived  1 14- 
50  B.C.  The  reference  here  is  to  a  plea  made  by  his  daughter,  Hortensia, 
before  the  triumviri,  Octavianus,  Antony,  and  Lepidus,  for  a  remission  of 
part  of  the  tax  laid  on  matrons. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  453 

sion  of  their  own  knowledge ;  since  they  disdain  to  yield 
to  those  who  are  skilled  in  teaching,  and,  growing  impe¬ 
rious,  and  sometimes  fierce,  in  a  certain  right,  as  it  were, 
of  exercising  their  authority  (with  which  that  sort  of  men 
are  generally  puffed  up),  they  teach  only  their  own  folly. 
9.  Nor  is  their  misconduct  less  prejudicial  to  the  manners 
of  their  pupils ;  for  Leonidas,1  the  tutor  of  Alexander,  as 
is  related  by  Diogenes2  of  Babylon,  tinctured  him  with 
certain  bad  habits,  which  adhered  to  him,  from  his  childish 
education,  even  when  he  was  grown  up  and  become  the 
greatest  of  kings. 

10.  If  I  seem  to  my  reader  to  require  a  great  deal,  let 
him  consider  that  it  is  an  orator  that  is  to  be  educated ; 
an  arduous  task,  even  when  nothing  is  deficient  for  the 
formation  of  his  character ;  and  that  more  and  more  diffi¬ 
cult  labours  yet  remain  ;  for  there  is  need  of  constant 
study,  the  most  excellent  teachers,  and  a  variety  of  mental 
exercises.  11.  The  best  of  rules,  therefore,  are  to  be  laid 
down  ;  and  if  any  one  shall  refuse  to  observe  them,  the 
fault  will  lie,  not  in  the  method,  but  in  the  man. 

If  however  it  should  not  be  the  good  fortune  of  chil¬ 
dren  to  have  such  nurses  as  I  should  wish,  let  them  at 
least  have  one  attentive  pcedagogus ,  not  unskilled  in  lan¬ 
guage,  who,  if  anything  is  spoken  incorrectly  by  the  nurse 
in  the  presence  of  his  pupil,  may  at  once  correct  it,  and 
not  let  it  settle  in  his  mind.  But  let  it  be  understood  that 
what  I  prescribed  at  first  is  the  right  course,  and  this  only 
a  remedy. 

12.  I  prefer  that  a  boy  should  begin  with  the  Greek 
language,  because  he  will  acquire  Latin,  which  is  in  gen¬ 
eral  use,  even  though  we  tried  to  prevent  him,  and  because, 
at  the  same  time,  he  ought  first  to  be  instructed  in  Greek 
learning,  from  which  ours  is  derived.  13*  Yet  I  should 
not  wish  this  rule  to  be  so  superstitiously  observed  that  he 
should  for  a  long  time  speak  or  learn  only  Greek,  as  is 

1  Leonidas  was  kinsman  of  Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
He  was  instructor  to  the  latter  previous  to  the  arrival  of  Aristotle,  and  was 
noted  for  his  severity. 

2  A  native  of  Seleucia,  Babylon,  who  flourished  about  240-152  B.C.  None 
of  his  books  are  extant. 


Study  of 
Greek  and 
Latin. 


Proper  age 
for  begin¬ 
ning  to 
learn. 


454  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

the  custom  with  most  people  ;  for  hence  arise  many  faults 
of  pronunciation,  which  is  viciously  adapted  to  foreign 
sounds,  and  also  of  language,  in  which  when  Greek  idioms 
have  become  inherent  by  constant  usage,  they  keep  their 
place  most  pertinaciously  even  when  we  speak  a  different 
tongue.  14.  The  study  of  Latin  ought  therefore  to  follow 
at  no  long  interval,  and  soon  after  to  keep  pace  with  the 
Greek ;  and  thus  it  will  happen,  that,  when  we  have  begun 
to  attend  to  both  tongues  with  equal  care,  neither  will 
impede  the  other. 

15.  Some  have  thought  that  boys,  as  long  as  they  are 
under  seven  years  of  age,  should  not  be  set  to  learn,  be¬ 
cause  that  is  the  earliest  age  that  can  understand  what  is 
taught,  and  endure  the  labour  of  learning.  Of  which 
opinion  a  great  many  writers  say  that  Hesiod1  was,  at 
least  such  writers  as  lived  before  Aristophanes  2  the  gram¬ 
marian,  for  he  was  the  first  to  deny  that  the  Hupothcekai ,3  in 
which  this  opinion  is  found,  was  the  work  of  that  poet. 
16.  But  other  writers  likewise,  among  whom  is  Eratos¬ 
thenes,4  have  given  the  same  advice.  Those,  however, 
advise  better,  who,  like  Chrysippus  5  think  that  no  part  of 
a  child’s  life  should  be  exempt  from  tuition ;  for  Chry- 
sippus,  though  he  has  allowed  three  years  to  the  nurses, 
yet  is  of  opinion  that  the  minds  of  children  may  be  imbued 
with  excellent  instruction  even  by  them.  17.  And  why 
should,  not  that  age  be  under  the  influence  of  learning, 
which  is  now  confessedly  subject  to  moral  influences  ?  I 
am.  not  indeed  ignorant  that,  during  the  whole  time  of 
which  I  am  speaking,  scarcely  as  much  can  be  done  as 
one  year  may  afterwards  accomplish,  yet  those  who  are  of 

The  earliest  epic  poet,  Homer  excepted,  whose  writings  have  come  down 

to  us.  He  was  born  at  Ascra  in  Boeotia,  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century  b.c. 

2  A  native  of  Byzantium  (about)  260-183  b.c.  He  has  come  down  to  us 
as  one  of  the  ablest  grammarians  and  critics  of  antiquity. 

3  Hupothcekai  (counsel),  a  poem  now  lost,  but  generally  ascribed  to  Hesiod. 

4  The  keeper  of  the  Alexandrian  library  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes 
and  the  author  of  several  works,  which  are  all  lost  save  a  few  fragments. 

(  -222  B.C.) 

6  See  note  p.  451. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  455 

the  opinion  which  I  have  mentioned,  appear  with  regard 
to  this  part  of  life  to  have  spared  not  so  much  the  learners 
as  the  teachers.  18.  What  else,  after  they  are  able  to 
speak,  will  children  do  better,  for  they  must  do  something  ? 
Or  why  should  we  despise  the  gain,  how  little  soever  it  be, 
previous  to  the  age  of  seven  years?  For  certainly,  small 
as  may  be  the  proficiency  which  an  earlier  age  exhibits, 
the  child  will  yet  learn  something  greater  during  the  very 
year  in  which  he  would  have  been  learning  something  less. 

19.  This  advancement  extended  through  each  year,  is  a 
profit  on  the  whole  ;  and  whatever  is  gained  in  infancy  is  an 
acquisition  to  youth.  The  same  rule  should  be  prescribed 
as  to  the  following  years,  so  that  what  every  boy  has  to 
learn,  he  may  not  be  too  late  in  beginning  to  learn.  Let 
us  not  then  lose  even  the  earliest  period  of  life,  and  so 
much  the  less,  as  the  elements  of  learning  depend  on  the 
memory  alone,  which  not  only  exists  in  children,  but  is  at 
that  time  of  life  even  most  tenacious. 

20.  Yet  I  am  not  so  unacquainted  with  differences  of 
age,  as  to  think  that  we  should  urge  those  of  tender  years 
severely,  or  exact  a  full  complement  of  work  from  them  , 
for  it  will  be  necessary,  above  all  things,  to  take  care  lest 
the  child  should  conceive  a  dislike  to  the  application  which 
he  cannot  yet  love,  and  continue  to  dread  the  bitterness 
which  he  has  once  tasted,  even  beyond  the  years  of  infancy. 
Let  his  instruction  be  an  amusement  to  him ;  let  him  be 
questioned,  and  praised ;  and  let  him  never  feel  pleased 
that  he  does  not  know  a  thing ;  and  sometimes,  if  he  is 
unwilling  to  learn,  let  another  be  taught  before  him,  of 
whom  he  may  be  envious.  Let  him  strive  for  victory  now 
and  then,  and  generally  suppose  that  he  gains  it ;  and  let 
his  powers  be  called  forth  by  rewards,  such  as  that  age 

prizes.  .  . 

21.  We  are  giving  small  instructions,  while  professing 

to  educate  an  orator  ;  but  even  studies  have,  their  infancy ; 
and  as  the  rearing  of  the  very  strongest  bodies  commenced 
with  milk  and  the  cradle,  so  he,  who  was  to  be  the  most 
eloquent  of  men,  once  uttered  cries,  tried  to  speak  at  first 
with  a  stuttering  voice,  and  hesitated  at  the  shapes  of  the 
letters.  Nor,  if  it  is  impossible  to  learn  a  thing  completely, 
is  it  therefore  unnecessary  to  learn  it  at  all.  22.  If  no 


Proper 
methods  of 
early 

instruction 


Of  learning 
the 

alphabet, 


456  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

one  blames  a  father,  who  thinks  that  these  matters  are  not 
to  be  neglected  in  regard  to  his  son,  why  should  he  be 
blamed  who  communicates  to  the  public  what  he  would 
practise  to  advantage  in  his  own  house  ?  And  this  is  so 
much  the  more  the  case,  as  younger  minds  more  easily 
take  in  small  things ;  and  as  bodies  cannot  be  formed  to 
certain  flexures  of  the  limbs  unless  while  they  are  tender, 
so  even  strength  itself  makes  our  minds  likewise  more 
unyielding  to  most  things.  23.  Would  Philip,  king  of 
Macedonia,  have  wished  the  first  principles  of  learning  to 
be  communicated  to  his  son  Alexander  by  Aristotle,  the 
greatest  philosopher  of  that  age,  or  would  Aristotle  have 
undertaken  that  office,  if  they  had  not  both  thought  that 
the  first  rudiments  of  instruction  are  best  treated  by  the 
most  accomplished  teacher,  and  have  an  influence  on  the 
whole  course  ?  24.  Let  us  suppose,  then,  that  Alexander 
were  committed  to  me,  and  laid  in  my  lap,  an  infant 
worthy  of  so  much  solicitude  (though  every  man  thinks 
his  own  son  worthy  of  similar  solicitude),  should  I  be 
ashamed,  even  in  teaching  him  his  very  letters,  to  point  out 
some  compendious  methods  of  instruction? 

bor  that  at  least,  which  I  see  practised  in  regard  to  most 
children,  by  no  means  pleases  me,  namely,  that  they  learn 
the  names  and  order  of  the  letters  before  they  learn  their 
shapes.  25.  This  method  hinders  their  recognition  of 
them,  as,  while  they  follow  their  memory  that  takes  the 
lead,  they  do  not  fix  their  attention  on  the  forms  of  the 
letters.  This  is  the  reason  why  teachers,  even  when  they 
appear  to  have  fixed  them  sufficiently  in  the  minds  of  chil¬ 
dren,  in  the  straight  order  in  which  they  are  usually  first 
written,  make  them  go  over  them  again  the  contrary  way, 
and  confuse  them  by  variously  changing  the  arrangement, 
until  their  pupils  know  them  by  their  shape,  not  by  their 
place.  It  will  be  best  for  children,  therefore,  to  be  taught 
the  appearances  and  names  of  the  letters  at  once,  as  they 
are  taught  those  of  men.  26.  But  that  which  is  hurtful 
with  regard  to  letters,  will  be  no  impediment  with  regard 
to  syllables.  I  do  not  disapprove,  however,  the  practice, 
which  is  well  known,  of  giving  children,  for  the  sake  of 
stimulating  them  to  learn,  ivory  figures  of  letters  to  play 
with,  or  whatever  else  can  be  invented,  in  which  that  infan- 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  457 

tine  age  may  take  delight,  and  which  may  be  pleasing  to 
handle,  look  at,  or  name. 

27.  But  as  soon  as  the  child  shall  have  begun  to  trace  and  of 
the  forms  of  the  letters,  it  will  not  be  improper  that  they  writing, 
should  be  cut  for  him,  as  exactly  as  possible,  on  a  board, 
that  his  style1  may  be  guided  along  them  as  along  grooves, 
for  he  will  then  make  no  mistakes,  as  on  wax  (since  he 
will  be  kept  in  by  the  edge  on  each  side,  and  will  be  unable 
to  stray  beyond  the  boundary);  and,  by  following  these 
sure  traces  rapidly  and  frequently,  he  will  form  his  hand, 
and  not  require  the  assistance  of  a  person  to  guide  his 
hand  with  his  own  hand  placed  over  it.  28.  The  accom¬ 
plishment  of  writing  well  and  expeditiously,  which  is  com¬ 
monly  disregarded  by  people  of  quality,  is  by  no  means 
an  indifferent  matter ;  for  as  writing  itself  is  the  principal 
thing  in  our  studies,  and  that  by  which  alone  sure  profi¬ 
ciency,  resting  on  the  deepest  roots,  is  secured,  a  too  slow 
way  of  writing  retards  thought,  a  rude  and  confused  hand 
cannot  be  read ;  and  hence  follows  another  task,  that  of 
reading  off  what  is  to  be  copied  from  the  writing.  29.  At 
all  times,  therefore,  and  in  all  places,  and  especially  in 
writing  private  and  familiar  letters,  it  will  be  a  source  of 
pleasure  to  us,  not  to  have  neglected  even  this  acquirement. 

30.  For  learning  syllables  there  is  no  short  way  ;  they  Of  learning 
must  all  be  learned  throughout;  nor  are  the  most  diffi-  to  read- 
cult  of  them,  as  is  the  general  practice,  to  be  postponed, 
that  children  may  be  at  a  loss,  forsooth,  in  writing  words. 

31.  Moreover,  we  must  not  even  trust  to  the  first  learning 
by  heart ;  it  will  be  better  to  have  syllables  repeated,  and  to 
impress  them  long  upon  the  memory ;  and  in  reading  too, 
not  to  hurry  on,  in  order  to  make  it  continuous  or  quick, 
until  the  clear  and  certain  connexion  of  the  letters  become 
familiar,  without  at  least  any  necessity  to  stop  for  recollec¬ 
tion.  Let  the  pupil  then  begin  to  form  words  from  sylla¬ 
bles,  and  to  join  phrases  together  from  words.  32.  It  is 
incredible  how  much  retardation  is  caused  to  reading  by 
haste ;  for  hence  arise  hesitation,  interruption,  and  repeti¬ 
tion,  as  children  attempt  more  than  they  can  manage ;  and 
then,  after  making  mistakes,  they  become  distrustful  even 
of  what  they  know.  33.  Let  reading,  therefore,  be  at 

1  The  iron  pencil  used  for  writing  on  waxen  tablets. 


Learning  by 
heart. 


Importance 
of  pro¬ 
nunciation. 


458  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

first  sure,  then  continuous,  and  for  a  long  time  slow,  until, 
by  exercise,  a  correct  quickness  is  gained.  34.  For  to 
look  to  the  right,  as  everybody  teaches,  and  to  look  for¬ 
ward,  depends  not  merely  on  rule,  but  on  habit,  since, 
while  the  child  is  looking  to  what  follows,  he  has  to  pro¬ 
nounce  what  goes  before,  and,  what  is  very  difficult,  the 
direction  of  his  thoughts  must  be  divided,  so  that  one  duty 
may  be  discharged  with  his  voice,  and  another  with  his 
eyes. 

When  the  child  shall  have  begun,  as  is  the  practice,  to 
write  words,  it  will  cause  no  regret  if  we  take  care  that  he 
may  not  waste  his  efforts  on  common  words,  and  such  as 
perpetually  occur.  35.  For  he  may  readily  learn  the  ex¬ 
planations  of  obscure  terms,  which  the  Greeks  call  glos¬ 
sal}  while  some  other  occupation  is  before  him,  and 
acquire,  amidst  his  first  rudiments,  a  knowledge  of  that 
which  would  afterwards  demand  a  special  time  for  it. 
Since,  too,  we  are  still  attending  to  small  matters,  I  would 
express  a  wish  that  even  the  lines,  which  are  set  him  for 
his  imitation  in  writing,  should  not  contain  useless  sen¬ 
tences,  but  such  as  convey  some  moral  instruction.  36. 
The  remembrance  of  such  admonitions  will  attend  him  to 
old  age,  and  will  be  of  use  even  for  the  formation  of  his 
character.  It  is  possible  for  him,  also,  to  learn  the  sayings 
of  eminent  men,  and  select  passages,  chiefly  from  the  poets 
(for  the  reading  of  poets  is  more  pleasing  to  the  young), 
in  his  play-time;  since  memory  (as  I  shall  show  in  its 
proper  place)  is  most  necessary  to  an  orator,  and  is  emi¬ 
nently  strengthened  and  nourished  by  exercise ;  and,  at 
the  age  of  which  we  are  now  speaking,  and  which  cannot, 
as  yet,  produce  anything  of  itself,  it  is  almost  the  only  fac¬ 
ulty  that  can  be  improved  by  the  aid  of  teachers.  37.  It 
will  not  be  improper,  however,  to  require  of  boys  of  this 
age  (in  order  that  their  pronunciation  may  be  fuller  and 
their  speech  more  distinct)  to  roll  forth,  as  rapidly  as  pos¬ 
sible,  certain  words  and  lines  of  studied  difficulty,  com¬ 
posed  of  several  syllables,  and  those  roughly  clashing 
together,  and,  as  it  were,  rugged-sounding ;  the  Greeks 

1  Glossai  was  the  term  the  Greeks  applied  to  a  foreign  or  obsolete  word 
that  required  explanation. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  459 

call  them  Chalepoi }  This  may  seem  a  trifling  matter  to 
mention,  but  when  it  is  neglected,  many  faults  of  pronun¬ 
ciation,  unless  they  are  removed  in  the  years  of  youth,  are 
fixed  by  incorrigible  ill  habit  for  the  rest  of  life. 

CHAPTER  II 

1.  But  let  us  suppose  that  the  child  now  gradually  in¬ 
creases  in  size,  and  leaves  the  lap,  and  applies  himself  to 
learning  in  earnest.  In  this  place,  accordingly,  must  be 
considered  the  question,  whether  it  be  more  advantageous 
to  confine  the  learner  at  home,  and  within  the  walls  of  a 
private  house,  or  to  commit  him  to  the  large  numbers  of  a 
school,  and,  as  it  were,  to  public  teachers.  2.  The  latter 
mode,  I  observe,  has  had  the  sanction  of  those  by  whom 
the  polity  of  the  most  eminent  states  were  settled,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  most  illustrious  authors. 

Yet  it  is  not  to  be  concealed,  that  there  are  some  who, 
from  certain  notions  of  their  own,  disapprove  of  this  almost 
public  mode  of  instruction.  These  persons  appear  to  be 
swayed  chiefly  by  two  reasons  :  one,  that  they  take  better 
precautions  for  the  morals  of  the  young,  by  avoiding  a 
concourse  of  human  beings  of  that  age  which  is  most  prone 
to  vice  (from  which  cause  I  wish  it  were  falsely  asserted 
that  provocations  to  immoral  conduct  arise) ;  the  other, 
that  whoever  may  be  the  teacher,  he  is  likely  to  bestow  his 
time  more  liberally  on  one  pupil,  than  if  he  has  to  divide  it 
among  several.  3.  The  first  reason  indeed  deserves  great 
consideration ;  for  if  it  were  certain  that  schools,  though 
advantageous  to  studies,  are  pernicious  to  morals,  a  virtu¬ 
ous  course  of  life  would  seem  to  me  preferable  to  one  even 
of  the  most  distinguished  eloquence.  But  in  my  opinion, 
the  two  are  combined  and  inseparable ;  for  I  am  convinced 
that  no  one  can  be  an  orator  who  is  not  a  good  man ;  and, 
even  if  any  one  could,  I  should  be  unwilling  that  he  should 
be.  On  this  point,  therefore,  I  shall  speak  first. 

4.  People  think  that  morals  are  corrupted  in  schools ; 
for  indeed  they  are  at  times  corrupted ;  but  such  may  be 

1  Chalepoi  was  the  term  the  Greeks  applied  to  words  and  phrases  difficult 
to  pronounce. 


Public 
education  to 
be  preferred 
to  private. 


460  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Public 
schools  no 
more  im¬ 
moral  than 
homes. 


Moral  weak¬ 
ness  begins 
with  early- 
home 
training. 


the  case  even  at  home.  Many  proofs  of  this  fact  may  be 
adduced;  proofs  of  character  having  been  vitiated,  as  well 
as  preserved  with  the  utmost  purity,  under  both  modes  of 
education.  It  is  the  disposition  of  the  individual  pupil, 
and  the  care  taken  of  him,  that  make  the  whole  difference. 
Suppose  that  his  mind  be  prone  to  vice,  suppose  that  there 
be  neglect  in  forming  and  guarding  his  morals  in  early 
youth,  seclusion  would  afford  no  less  opportunity  for  im¬ 
morality  than  publicity ;  for  the  private  tutor  may  be  him¬ 
self  of  bad  character ;  nor  is  intercourse  with  vicious  slaves 
at  all  safer  than  that  with  immodest  free-born  youths. 
5.  But  if  his  disposition  be  good,  and  if  there  be  not  a 
blind  and  indolent  negligence  on  the  part  of  his  parents, 
it  will  be  possible  for  them  to  select  a  tutor  of  irreproach¬ 
able  character,  (a  matter  to  which  the  utmost  attention  is 
paid  by  sensible  parents,)  and  to  fix  on  a  course  of  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the  very  strictest  kind ;  while  they  may  at  the  same 
time  place  at  the  elbow  of  their  son  some  influential  friend 
or  faithful  freedman,  whose  constant  attendance  may  improve 
even  those  of  whom  apprehensions  may  be  entertained. 

6.  The  remedy  for  this  object  of  fear  is  easy.  Would 
that  we  ourselves  did  not  corrupt  the  morals  of  our  chil¬ 
dren  !  We  enervate  their  very  infancy  with  luxuries.  That 
delicacy  of  education,  which  we  call  fondness,  weakens  all 
the  powers,  both  of  body  and  mind.  What  luxury  will  he 
not  covet  in  his  manhood,  who  crawls  about  on  purple ! 
He  cannot  yet  articulate  his  first  words,  when  he  already 
distinguishes  scarlet,  and  wants  his  purple.  7.  We  form 
the  palate  of  children  before  we  form  their  pronunciation. 
They  grow  up  in  sedan  chairs ;  if  they  touch  the  ground, 
they  hang  by  the  hands  of  attendants  supporting  them  on 
each  side.  We  are  delighted  if  they  utter  anything  im¬ 
modest.  Expressions  which  would  not  be  tolerated  even 
from  the  effeminate  youths  of  Alexandria,  we  hear  from 
them  with  a  smile  and  a  kiss.  Nor  is  this  wonderful ;  we 
have  taught  them ;  they  have  heard  such  language  from 
ourselves.  8.  They  see  our  mistresses,  our  male  objects 
of.  affection ;  every  dining  room  rings  with  impure  songs ; 
things  shameful  to  be  told  are  objects  of  sight.  From  such 
practices  springs  habit,  and  afterwards  nature.  The  unfor¬ 
tunate  children  learn  these  vices  before  they  know  that 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  461 


they  are  vices ;  and  hence,  rendered  effeminate  and  luxu¬ 
rious,  they  do  not  imbibe  immorality  from  schools,  but 
carry  it  themselves  into  schools. 

9.  But,  it  is  said,  one  tutor  will  have  more  time  for  one 
pupil.  First  of  all,  however,  nothing  prevents  that  one 
pupil,  whoever  he  may  be,  from  being  the  same  with  him 
who  is  taught  in  the  school.  But  if  the  two  objects  cannot 
be  united,  I  should  still  prefer  the  day-light  of  an  honour¬ 
able  seminary  to  darkness  and  solitude ;  for  every  eminent 
teacher  delights  in  a  large  concourse  of  pupils,  and  thinks 
himself  worthy  of  a  still  more  numerous  auditory.  10.  But 
inferior  teachers,  from  a  consciousness  of  their  inability, 
do  not  disdain  to  fasten  on  single  pupils,  and  to  discharge 
the  duty  as  it  were  of  pcedagogi.  11.  But  supposing  that 
either  interest,  or  friendship,  or  money,  should  secure  to 
any  parent  a  domestic  tutor  of  the  highest  learning,  and  in 
every  respect  unrivalled,  will  he  however  spend  the  whole 
day  on  one  pupil  ?  Or  can  the  application  of  any  pupil  be 
so  constant  as  not  to  be  sometimes  wearied,  like  the  sight 
of  the  eyes,  by  continued  direction  to  one  object,  especially 
as  study  requires  the  far  greater  portion  of  time  to  be  soli¬ 
tary  ?  12.  For  the  tutor  does  not  stand  by  the  pupil  while 

he  is  writing,  or  learning  by  heart,  or  thinking ;  and  when  he 
is  engaged  in  any  of  those  exercises,  the  company  of  any 
person  whatsoever  is  a  hindrance  to  him.  Nor  does  every 
kind  of  reading  require  at  all  times  a  prselector  or  inter¬ 
preter  ;  for  when,  if  such  were  the  case,  would  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  so  many  authors  be  gained  ?  The  time,  therefore, 
during  which  the  work  as  it  were  for  the  whole  day  may 
be  laid  out,  is  but  short.  13.  Thus  the  instructions  which 
are  to  be  given  to  each  may  reach  to  many.  Most  of  them, 
indeed,  are  of  such  a  nature  that  they  may  be  communi¬ 
cated  to  all  at  once  with  the  same  exertion  of  the  voice. 
I  say  nothing  of  the  topics  and  declamations  of  the  rheto¬ 
ricians,  at  which,  certainly,  whatever  be  the  number  of  the 
audience,  each  will  still  carry  off  the  whole.  14.  For  the 
voice  of  the  teacher  is  not  like  a  meal,  which  will  not  suffice 
for  more  than  a  certain  number,  but  like  the  sun,  which 
diffuses  the  same  portion  of  light  and  heat  to  all.  If  a 
grammarian,  too,  discourses  on  the  art  of  speaking,  solves 
questions,  explains  matters  of  history,  or  illustrates  poems. 


Reply  to  the 
objection 
that  a  pupil 
receives 
less  atten¬ 
tion  from  a 
school¬ 
master  than 
from  a 
domestic 
tutor. 


Advantages 
of  a  public 
school 
education : 


emulation, 


friendships, 


462  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

as  many  as  shall  hear  him  will  profit  by  his  instructions. 

15.  But,  it  may  be  said,  number  is  an  obstacle  to  correc¬ 
tion  and  explanation.  Suppose  that  this  be  a  disadvan¬ 
tage  in  a  number  (for  what  in  general  satisfies  us  in  every 
respect  ?)  we  will  soon  compare  that  disadvantage  with 
other  advantages. 

Yet  I  would  not  wish  a  boy  to  be  sent  to  a  place  where 
he  will  be  neglected.  Nor  should  a  good  master  encumber 
himself  with  a  greater  number  of  scholars  than  he  can  man¬ 
age  ;  and  it  is  to  be  a  chief  object  with  us,  also,  that  the 
master  may  be  in  every  way  our  kind  friend,  and  may  have 
regard  in  his  teaching,  not  so  much  to  duty,  as  to  affection. 
Thus  we  shall  never  be  confounded  with  the  multitude. 

16.  Nor  will  any  master,  who  is  in  the  slightest  degree 
tinctured  with  literature,  fail  particularly  to  cherish  that 
pupil  in  whom  he  shall  observe  application  and  genius, 
even  for  his  own  honour.  But  even  if  great  schools 
ought  to  be  avoided  (a  position  to  which  I  cannot  assent, 
if  numbers  flock  to  a  master  on  account  of  his  merit),  the 
rule  is  not  to  be  carried  so  far  that  schools  should  be 
avoided  altogether.  It  is  one  thing  to  shun  schools, 
another  to  choose  from  them. 

17.  If  I  have  now  refuted  the  objections  which  are  made 
to  schools,  let  me  next  state  what  opinions  I  myself  enter¬ 
tain.  18.  First  of  all,  let  him  who  is  to  be  an  orator,  and 
who  must  live  amidst  the  greatest  publicity,  and  in  the  full 
daylight  of  public  affairs,  accustom  himself,  from  his  boy¬ 
hood,  not  to  be  abashed  at  the  sight  of  men,  nor  pine  in  a 
solitary  and  as  it  were  recluse  way  of  life.  The  mind  re¬ 
quires  to  be  constantly  excited  and  roused,  while  in  such 
retirement  it  either  languishes,  and  contracts  rust,  as  it 
were,  in  the  shade,  or  on  the  other  hand,  becomes  swollen 
with  empty  conceit,  since  he  who  compares  himself  to  no 
one  else,  will  necessarily  attribute  too  much  to  his  own 
powers.  19.  Besides,  when  his  acquirements  are  to  be 
displayed  in  public,  he  is  blinded  at  the  light  of  the  sun, 
and  stumbles  at  every  new  object,  as  having  learned  in 
solitude  that  which  is  to  be  done  in  public.  20.  I  say 
nothing  of  friendships  formed  at  school,  which  remain  in 
full  force  even  to  old  age,  as  if  cemented  with  a  certain 
religious  obligation ;  for  to  have  been  initiated  in  the  same 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  463 


studies  is  a  not  less  sacred  bond  than  to  have  been  initiated  in 
the  same  sacred  rites.  That  sense,  too,  which  is  called  com¬ 
mon  sense,  where  shall  a  young  man  learn  when  he  has  sepa¬ 
rated  himself  from  society,  which  is  natural  not  to  men  only, 
but  even  to  dumb  animals?  21.  Add  to  this,  that,  at 
home,  he  can  learn  only  what  is  taught  himself ;  at  school, 
even  what  is  taught  others.  22.  He  will  daily  hear  many 
things  commended,  many  things  corrected ;  the  idleness  of 
a  fellow  student,  when  reproved,  will  be  a  warning  to  him ; 
the  industry  of  any  one,  when  commended,  will  be  a  stimu¬ 
lus  ;  emulation  will  be  excited  by  praise ;  and  he  will  think 
it  a  disgrace  to  yield  to  his  equals  in  age,  and  an  honour 
to  surpass  his  seniors.  All  these  matters  excite  the  mind ; 
and  though  ambition  itself  be  a  vice,  yet  it  is  often  the 
parent  of  virtues. 

23.  I  remember  a  practice  that  was  observed  by  my 
masters,  not  without  advantage.  Having  divided  the  boys 
into  classes,  they  assigned  them  their  order  in  speaking  in 
conformity  to  the  abilities  of  each ;  and  thus  each  stood  in 
the  higher  place  to  declaim  according  as  he  appeared  to 
excel  in  proficiency.  24.  Judgments  were  pronounced 
on  the  performances ;  and  great  was  the  strife  among  us 
for  distinction  ;  but  to  take  the  lead  of  the  class  was  by  far 
the  greatest  honour.  Nor  was  sentence  given  on  our  merits 
only  once ;  the  thirtieth  day  brought  the  vanquished  an 
opportunity  of  contending  again.  Thus  he  who  was  most 
successful,  did  not  relax  his  efforts,  while  uneasiness  incited 
the  unsuccessful  to  retrieve  his  honour.  25.  I  should  be 
inclined  to  maintain,  as  far  as  I  can  form  a  judgment  from 
what  I  conceive  in  my  own  mind,  that  this  method  furnished 
stronger  incitements  to  the  study  of  eloquence,  than  the 
exhortations  of  preceptors,  the  watchfulness  of  pczdagogi , 
or  the  wishes  of  parents. 

26.  But  as  emulation  is  of  use  to  those  who  have  made 
some  advancement  in  learning,  so,  to  those  who  are  but 
beginning,  and  are  still  of  tender  age,  to  imitate  their  school¬ 
fellows  is  more  pleasant  than  to  imitate  their  master, 
for  the  very  reason  that  it  is  more  easy ;  for  they  who  are 
learning  the  first  rudiments  will  scarcely  dare  to  exalt  them¬ 
selves  to  the  hope  of  attaining  that  eloquence  which  they 
regard  as  the  highest ;  they  will  rather  fix  on  what  is  near¬ 


profit  from 
advances 
and  error  of 
others, 


incitement 
to  the  study 
of 

eloquence, 


imitation  of 
those  more 
advanced, 


greater 

incentive 

masters. 


464  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

est  to  them,  as  vines  attached  to  tree  gain  the  top  by 
taking  hold  of  the  lower  branches  first.  27.  This  is  an 
observation  of  such  truth,  that  it  is  the  care  even  of  the 
master  himself,  when  he  has  to  instruct  minds  that  are  still 
unformed,  not  (if  he  prefer  at  least  the  useful  to  the  showy) 
to  overburden  the  weakness  of  his  scholars,  but  to  moderate 
his  strength,  and  to  let  himself  down  to  the  capacity  of  the 
learner.  28.  For  as  narrow-necked  vessels  reject  a  great 
quantity  of  the  liquid  that  is  poured  upon  them,  but  are 
filled  by  that  which  flows  or  is  poured  into  them  by  degrees, 
so  it  is  for  us  to  ascertain  how  much  the  minds  of  boys  can 
receive,  since  what  is  too  much  for  their  grasp  of  intellect 
will  not  enter  their  minds,  as  not  being  sufficiently  expanded 
to  admit  it.  29.  It  is  of  advantage  therefore  for  a  boy  to 
have  school-fellows  whom  he  may  first  imitate,  and  after¬ 
wards  try  to  surpass.  Thus  will  he  gradually  conceive  hope 
of  higher  excellence. 

To  these  observations  I  shall  add,  that  masters  them- 
to  selves,  when  they  have  but  one  pupil  at  a  time  with  them, 
cannot  feel  the  same  degree  of  energy  and  spirit  in 
addressing  him,  as  when  they  are  excited  by  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  hearers.  30.  Eloquence  depends  in  a  great  degree 
on  the  state  of  the  mind,  which  must  conceive  images  of 
objects,  and  transform  itself,  so  to  speak,  to  the  nature  of 
the  things  of  which  we  discourse.  Besides,  the  more 
noble  and  lofty  a  mind  is,  by  the  more  powerful  springs, 
as  it  were,  is  it  moved,  and  accordingly  is  both  strength¬ 
ened  by  praise,  and  enlarged  by  effort,  and  is  filled  with 
joy  at  achieving  something  great.  31.  But  a  certain  secret 
disdain  is  felt  at  lowering  the  power  of  eloquence,  acquired 
by  so  much  labour,  to  one  auditor;  and  the  teacher  is 
ashamed  to  raise  his  style  above  the  level  of  ordinary  con¬ 
versation.  Let  any  one  imagine,  indeed,  the  air  of  a  man 
haranguing,  or  the  voice  of  one  entreating,  the  gesture,  the 
pronunciation,  the  agitation  of  mind  and  body,  the  exer¬ 
tion,  and,  to  mention  nothing  else,  the  fatigue,  while  he 
has  but  one  auditor;  would  not  he  seem  to  be  affected 
with  something  like  madness  ?  There  would  be  no  elo¬ 
quence  in  the  world,  if  we  were  to  speak  only  with  one 
person  at  a  time. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  4^5 

CHAPTER  III 

I.  Let  him  that  is  skilled  in  teaching,  ascertain  first  of 
all,  when  a  boy  is  entrusted  to  him,  his  ability  and  disposi¬ 
tion.  The  chief  symptom  of  ability  in  children  is  memory, 
of  which  the  excellence  is  two-fold,  to  receive  with  ease 
and  retain  with  fidelity.  The  next  symptom  is  imitation ; 
for  that  is  an  indication  of  a  teachable  disposition,  but  with 
this  provision,  that  it  express  merely  what  it  is  taught,  and 
not  a  person’s  manner  or  walk,  for  instance,  or  whatever 
may  be  remarkable  for  deformity.  2.  The  boy  who  shall 
make  it  his  aim  to  raise  a  laugh  by  his  love  of  mimiciy, 
will  afford  me  no  hope  of  good  capacity ;  for  he  who  is 
possessed  of  great  talent  will  be  well  disposed ;  else  I 
should  think  it  not  at  all  worse  to  be  of  a  dull,  than  of  a 
bad,  disposition;  but  he  who  is  honourably  inclined  will 
be  very  different  from  the  stupid  or  idle.  3-  Such  a  pupil 
as  I  would  have,  will  easily  learn  what  is  taught  him,  and 
will  ask  questions  about  some  things,  but  will  still  rather 
follow  than  run  on  before.  That  precocious  sort  of  talent 
scarcely  ever  comes  to  good  fruit.  4.  Such  are  those  who 
do  little  things  easily,  and,  impelled  by  impudence,  show 
at  once  all  that  they  can  accomplish  in  such  matters.  But 
they  succeed  only  in  what  is  ready  to  their  hand ;  they 
string  words  together,  uttering  them  with  an  intrepid 
countenance,  not  in  the  least  discouraged  by  bashfulness  ; 
and  do  little  but  do  it  readily.  5.  There  is  no  real  power 
behind,  or  any  that  rests  on  deeply  fixed  roots ;  but  they 
are  like  seeds  which  have  been  scattered  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  shoot  up  prematurely,  and  like  grass  that 
resembles  corn,  and  grows  yellow,  with  empty  ears,  before 
the  time  of  harvest.  Their  efforts  give  pleasure,  as  com¬ 
pared  with  their  years  ;  but  their  progress  comes  to  a 

stand  and  our  wonder  diminishes.  >  # 

6.  When  a  tutor  has  observed  these  indications,  let  him 
next  consider  how  the  mind  of  his  pupil  is  to  be  managed. 
Some  boys  are  indolent,  unless  you  stimulate  them  ;  some 
are  indignant  at  being  commanded  ;  fear  restrains  some, 
and  unnerves  others  ;  continued  labour  forms  some  ;  with 
others,  hasty  efforts  succeed  better.  7.  Let  the  boy  be 
given  to  me,  whom  praise  stimulates,  whom  honour  delights, 


Dispositions 
and  abilities 
of  pupils 
to  be 

ascertained. 


Precocious- 
ness  not 
desirable. 


Manage¬ 
ment  of 
pupils. 


2  H 


Relaxation 
and  play. 


Corporal 

punishment. 


466  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

who  weeps  when  he  is  unsuccessful.  His  powers  must  be 
cultivated  under  the  influence  of  ambition ;  reproach  will 
sting  him  to  the  quick  ;  honour  will  incite  him  ;  and  in 
such  a  boy  I  shall  never  be  apprehensive  of  indifference. 

8.  Yet  some  relaxation  is  to  be  allowed  to  all ;  not  only 
because  there  is  nothing  that  can  bear  perpetual  labour, 
(and  even  those  things  that  are  without  sense  and  life  are 
unbent  by  alternate  rest,  as  it  were,  in  order  that  they  may 
preserve  their  vigour),  but  because  application  to  learning 
depends  on  the  will,  which  cannot  be  forced.  9.  Boys, 
accordingly,  when  re-invigorated  and  refreshed,  bring 
more  sprightliness  to  their  learning,  and  a  more  determined 
spirit,  which  for  the  most  part  spurns  compulsion.  10.  Nor 
will  play  in  boys  displease  me;  it  is  also  a  sign  of  vivac¬ 
ity  ;  and  I  cannot  expect  that  he  who  is  always  dull  and 
spiritless  will  be  of  an  eager  disposition  in  his  studies,  when 
he  is  indifferent  even  to  that  excitement  which  is  natural 
to  his  age.  11.  There  must  however  be  bounds  set  to 
relaxation,  lest  the  refusal  of  it  beget  an  aversion  to  study, 
or  too  much  indulgence  in  it  a  habit  of  idleness.  There 
are  some  kinds  of  amusement,  too,  not  unserviceable  for 
sharpening  the  wits  of  boys,  as  when  they  contend  with 
each  other  by  proposing  all  sorts  of  questions  in  turn. 
12.  In  their  plays,  also,  their  moral  dispositions  show 
themselves  more  plainly,  supposing  that  there  is  no  age 
so  tender  that  it  may  not  readily  learn  what  is  right  and 
wrong ;  and  the  tender  age  may  best  be  formed  at  a  time 
when  it  is  ignorant  of  dissimulation,  and  most  willingly 
submits  to  instructors  ;  for  you  may  break,  sooner  than 
mend,  that  which  has  hardened  into  deformity.  13.  A 
child  is  as  early  as  possible,  therefore,  to  be  admonished 
that  he  must  do  nothing  too  eagerly,  nothing  dishonestly, 
nothing  without  self-control ;  and  we  must  always  keep  in 
mind  the  maxim  of  Virgil,  Adeo  m  te?ieris  consuescere  mul- 
tian  est,  “  of  so  much  importance  is  the  acquirement  of 
habit  in  the  young." 

14.  But  that  boys  should  suffer  corporal  punishment, 
though  it  be  a  received  custom,  and  Chrysippus  makes  no 
objection  to  it,  I  by  no  means  approve ;  first,  because  it  is 
a  disgrace,  and  a  punishment  for  slaves,  and  in  reality  (as 
will  be  evident  if  you  imagine  the  age  changed)  an  affront ; 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  467 

secondly,  because,  if  a  boy’s  disposition  be  so  abject  as 
not  to  be  amended  by  reproof,  he  will  be  hardened,  like 
the  worst  of  slaves,  even  to  stripes ;  and  lastly,  because,  if 
one  who  regularly  exacts  his  tasks  be  with  him,  there  will 
not  be  the  least  need  of  any  such  chastisement.  15.  At 
present,  the  negligence  of  pcedagogi  seems  to  be  made 
amends  for  in  such  a  way  that  boys  are  not  obliged  to  do 
what  is  right,  but  are  punished  whenever  they  have  not 
done  it.  Besides,  after  you  have  coerced  a  boy  with 
stripes,  how  will  you  treat  him  when  he  becomes  a  young 
man,  to  whom  such  terror  cannot  be  held  out,  and  by 
whom  more  difficult  studies  must  be  pursued?  16.  Add 
to  these  considerations,  that  many  things  unpleasant  to  be 
mentioned,  and  likely  afterwards  to  cause  shame,  often 
happen  to  boys  while  being  whipped,  under  the  influence 
of  pain  or  fear ;  and  such  shame  enervates  and  depresses 
the  mind,  and  makes  them  shun  people’s  sight  and  feel  a 
constant  uneasiness.  17.  If,  moreover,  there  has  been  too 
little  care  in  choosing  governors  and  tutors  of  reputable 
character,  I  am  ashamed  to  say  how  scandalously  un¬ 
worthy  men  may  abuse  their  privilege  of  punishing,  and 
what  opportunity  also  the  terror  of  the  unhappy  chil¬ 
dren  may  sometimes  afford  to  others.  I  will  not  dwell 
upon  this  point ;  what  is  already  understood  is  more  than 
enough.  It  will  be  sufficient  therefore  to  intimate,  that 
no  man  should  be  allowed  too  much  authority  over  an  age 
so  weak  and  so  unable  to  resist  ill-treatment. 

18.  I  will  now  proceed  to  show  in  what  studies  he  who 
is  to  be  so  trained  that  he  may  become  an  orator,  must  be 
instructed,  and  which  of  them  must  be  commenced  at  each 
particular  period  of  youth. 

CHAPTER  IV 

1.  In  regard  to  the  boy  who  has  attained  facility  in 
reading  and  writing,  the  next  object  is  instruction  from 
the  grammarians.  Nor  is  it  of  importance  whether  I  speak 
of  the  Greek  or  Latin  grammarian,  though  I  am  inclined 
to  think  that  the  Greek  should  take  the  precedence. 
2.  Both  have  the  same  method.  This  profession,  then, 
distinguished  as  it  is,  most  compendiously,  into  two  parts, 


Grammati¬ 
cal  studies 
the 

foundation. 


468  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

the  art  of  speaking  correctly ,  and  the  illustration  of  the  poets , 
carries  more  beneath  the  surface  than  it  shows  on  its  front. 
3.  For  not  only  is  the  art  of  writing  combined  with  that 
of  speaking,  but  correct  reading  also  precedes  illustration, 
and  with  all  these  is  joined  the  exercise  of  judgment ,  which 
the  old  grammarians,  indeed,  used  with  such  severity,  that 
they  not.  only  allowed  themselves  to  distinguish  certain 
verses  with  a  particular  mark  of  censure,  and  to  remove, 
as  spurious,  certain  books  which  had  been  inscribed  with 
false  titles,  from  their  sets,  but  even  brought  some  authors 
within  their  canon,  and  excluded  others  altogether  from 
classification.  4.  Nor  is  it  sufficient  to  have  read  the  poets 
only ;  every  class  of  writers  must  be  studied,  not  simply  for 
matter,  but  for  words,  which  often  receive  their  authority 
from  writers.  Nor  can  grammar  be  complete  without  a 
knowledge  of  music,  since  the  grammarian  has  to  speak 
of  metre  and  rhythm ;  nor  if  he  is  ignorant  of  astronomy, 
can  he  understand  the  poets,  who,  to  say  nothing  of  other 
matters,  so  often  allude  to  the  rising  and  setting  of  the 
stars  in  marking  the  seasons;  nor  must  he  be  unac¬ 
quainted  with  philosophy,  both  on  account  of  numbers  of 
passages,  in  almost  all  poems,  drawn  from  the  most  ab¬ 
struse  subtleties  of  physical  investigation,  and  also  on 
account  of  Empedocles1  among  the  Greeks,  and  Varro 2 
and  Lucretius3  among  the  Latins,  who  have  committed 
the  precepts  of  philosophy  to  verse.  5-  The  grammarian 
has  also  need  of  no  small  portion  of  eloquence,  that  he 
may  speak  aptly  and  fluently  on  each  of  those  subjects 
which  are  here  mentioned.  Those  therefore  are  by  no 
means  to  be  regarded  who  deride  this  science  as  trifling 
and  empty,  for  unless  it  lays  a  sure  foundation  for  the 
future  orator,  whatever  superstructure  you  raise  will  fall ; 

1  ^  Greek  philosopher  and  poet,  born  at  Agrigentum  in  Sicily  about  490  B.C. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  Greece  about  430  b.c.  His  philosophy  is 
grounded  upon  the  assumption  of  four  unchangeable  elements,  fire,  air,  earth, 
and  water,  and  two  opposing  forces,  Love  and  Hate. 

A  Roman  poet  (82—36  B.C.),  of  whose  works  we  have  a  few  fragments. 
His  fame  rests  in  the  domain  of  narrative  epic  poetry. 

A  Roman  poet,  born  at  Rome  about  98  B.C.  and  died  by  his  own  hand  in 
55  B.C.  His  chief  work  is  a  didactic  poem  in  hexameter  verse  of  six  books 
concerning  the  nature  of  things  (De  Rerum  Naturd). 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  469 

it  is  a  science  which  is  necessary  to  the  young,  pleasing  to 
the  old,  and  an  agreeable  companion  in  retirement,  and 
which  alone,  of  all  departments  of  learning,  has  in  it  more 
service  than  show. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

1.  Reading  remains  to  be  considered;  in  which  how  a 
boy  may  know  when  to  take  breath,  where  to  divide  a 
verse,  where  the  sense  is  concluded,  where  it  begins,  when 
the  voice  is  to  be  raised  or  lowered,  what  is  to  be  uttered 
with  any  particular  inflexion  of  sound,  or  what  is  to  be 
pronounced  with  greater  slowness  or  rapidity,  with  greater 
animation  or  gentleness  than  other  passages,  can  be  taught 
only  in  practice.  2.  There  is  but  one  direction,  therefore, 
which  I  have  to  give  in  this  part  of  my  work,  namely, 
that  he  may  he  able  to  do  all  this  successfully ,  let  him  under¬ 
stand  what  he  reads. 

******* 

4.  Other  points  demand  much  admonition  to  be  given 
on  them ;  and  care  is  to  be  taken,  above  all  things,  that 
tender  minds,  which  will  imbibe  deeply  whatever  has 
entered  them  while  rude  and  ignorant  of  everything,  may 
learn,  not  only  what  is  eloquent,  but,  still  more,  what  is 
morally  good.  5.  It  has  accordingly  been  an  excellent 
custom,  that  reading  should  commence  with  Homer  and 
Virgil ,  although,  to  understand  their  merits,  there  is  need 
of  maturer  judgment ;  but  for  the  acquisition  of  judgment 
there  is  abundance  of  time ;  for  they  will  not  be  read  once 
only.  In  the  meantime,  let  the  mind  of  the  pupil  be 
exalted  with  the  sublimity  of  the  heroic  verse,  conceive 
ardour  from  the  magnitude  of  the  subjects,  and  be  imbued 
with  the  noblest  sentiments.  6.  The  reading  of  tragedies 
is  beneficial;  the  lyric  poets  nourish  the  mind,  provided 
that  you  select  from  them,  not  merely  authors,  but  por¬ 
tions  of  their  works ;  for  the  Greeks  are  licentious  in 
many  of  their  writings,  and  I  should  be  loath  to  interpret 
Horace  in  certain  passages.  As  to  elegy ,  at  least  that 
which  treats  of  love,  and  hendecasyllables}  and  poems  in 

1  A  line  of  eleven  syllables.  This  refers  chiefly  to  the  Phalsecian  verse, 
such  as  Catullus  wrote. 


On  reading. 


Authors  to 
be  read. 


470  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

which  there  are  portions  of  Sotadic  1  verses,  (for  concern¬ 
ing  Sotadic  verses  themselves  no  precept  need  even  be 
mentioned,)  let  them  be  altogether  kept  away,  if  it  be  pos¬ 
sible  ;  if  not,  let  them  at  least  be  reserved  for  the  greater 
strength  of  mature  age.  7.  Of  comedy ,  which  may  con¬ 
tribute  very  much  to  eloquence,  as  it  extends  to  all  sorts 
of  characters  and  passions,  I  will  state  a  little  further  on, 
in  the  proper  place,  the  good  which  I  think  it  may  do  to 
boys ;  when  their  morals  are  out  of  danger,  it  will  be 
among  the  subjects  to  be  chiefly  read.  It  is  of  Menander  2 
that  I  speak,  though  I  would  not  set  aside  other  comic 
writers ;  for  the  Latin  authors,  too,  will  confer  some  bene¬ 
fit.  8.  But  those  writings  should  be  the  subjects  of  lec¬ 
tures  for  boys,  which  may  best  nourish  the  mind  and  enlarge 
the  thinking  powers  ;  for  reading  other  books,  which  relate 
merely  to  erudition,  advanced  life  will  afford  sufficient  time. 

The  old  Latin  authors,  however,  will  be  of  great  use, 
though  most  of  them,  indeed,  were  stronger  in  genius 
than  in  art.  Above  all  they  will  supply  a  copia  verborum  ; 
while  in  their  tragedies  may  be  found  a  weightiness  of 
thought,  and  in  their  comedies  elegance,  and  something  as 
it  were  of  Atticism.  9-  There  will  be  seen  in  them,  too, 
a  more  careful  regard  to  regularity  of  structure  than  in 
most  of  the  moderns,  who  have  considered  that  the  merit 
of  every  kind  of  composition  lies  solely  in  the  thoughts. 
Purity,  certainly,  and,  that  I  may  so  express  myself,  manli¬ 
ness,  is  to  be  gained  from  them ;  since  we  ourselves  have 
fallen  into  all  the  vices  of  refinement,  even  in  our  manner 
of  speaking.  10.  Let  us,  moreover,  trust  to  the  practice  of 
the  greatest  orators,  who  have  recourse  to  the  poems  of  the 
ancients,  as  well  for  the  support  of  their  arguments,  as  for 
the  adornment  of  their  eloquence.  n.  For  in  Cicero, 
most  of  all,  and  frequently,  also,  in  Asinius,3  and  others 


1  A  peculiar  metre  originated  by  Sotades,  a  Greek  poet  of  the  third  cen¬ 
tury  b.c.,  which  was  much  imitated.  It  was  chiefly  used  for  malicious  satires, 
generally  on  indelicate  subjects. 

2  The  chief  representative  of  the  Later  Attic  Comedy.  He  was  born  at 
Athens  and  lived  342-290  B.c.  Fragments  of  his  works  are  extant. 

A  celebrated  Roman  poet,  orator,  and  historian,  who  lived  75  B.C.-4  A.D. 
He  wrote  many  works,  but  not  one  has  survived. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  471 

nearest  to  his  times,  we  see  verses  of  Ennius }  Accius ,2 
Pacuvius ,3  Lucilius ,4  Terence ,5  Ccecilius ,6  and  other  poets, 
introduced,  with  the  best  effect,  not  only  for  showing  the 
learning  of  the  speakers,  but  for  giving  pleasure  to  the 
hearers,  whose  ears  find  in  the  charms  of  poetry  a  relief 
from  the  want  of  elegance  in  forensic  pleading.  12.  To 
this  is  to  be  added  no  mean  advantage,  as  the  speakers  con¬ 
firm  what  they  have  stated  by  the  sentiments  of  the  poets, 
as  by  so  many  testimonies.  But  those  first  observations 
of  mine  have  reference  rather  to  boys,  the  latter  to  more 
advanced  students,  for  the  love  of  letters,  and  the  benefit 
of  reading,  are  bounded,  not  by  the  time  spent  at  school, 
but  by  the  extent  of  life. 

******* 

CHAPTER  X 

1.  These  remarks  I  have  made,  as  briefly  as  I  could, 
upon  grammar,  not  so  as  to  examine  and  speak  of  every 
thing,  which  would  be  an  infinite  task,  but  merely  of  the 
most  essential  points.  I  shall  now  add  some  concise  ob¬ 
servations  on  the  other  departments  of  study,  in  which  I 
think  that  boys  should  be  initiated  before  they  are  com¬ 
mitted  to  the  teacher  of  rhetoric,  in  order  that  that  circle 
of  instruction,  which  the  Greeks  call  €^kvk\lo<;  iratheia1  may 
be  completed. 

1  Born  at  Rudise  in  Calabria  in  239  B.C.,  and  died  in  170  B.C.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Hellenized  type  of  Latin  poetry.  His  greatest  work 
was  the  Annales,  a  chronological  narrative  of  Roman  history  in  verse. 

2  The  most  highly  esteemed  as  well  as  prolific  of  the  tragic  poets  under  the 
Republic.  He  was  born  at  Pisaurum  in  Umbria  170  B.C.,  and  died  about 

90  B.C. 

3  Born  about  220  B.C.  at  Brundisium,  and  died  about  130  B.C.  He  is  the 
first  Roman  dramatist  who  confined  himself  to  the  composing  of  tragedies. 

4  The  founder  of  Roman  satire;  born  about  180  B.C.  at  Suessa  Aurunca  in 

Campania,  and  died  at  Naples  103  B.C. 

5  The  celebrated  Roman  comic  poet  who  lived  185-159  B.C.  Some  of  his 

works  have  come  down  to  us. 

6  A  writer  of  Latin  comedy.  He  was  a  Gaul,  and  came  to  Rome  about 
194  B.C.,  as  a  prisoner  of  war.  He  died  166  B.C. 

7  The  circle  of  those  arts  and  sciences  which  every  freeborn  youth  was 
obliged  to  go  through  before  applying  to  any  professional  studies. 


Studies 
preliminary 
to  that  of 
rhetoric. 


472  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

2.  For  about  the  same  age  the  study  of  other  accorrr 
plishments  must  be  commenced ;  concerning  which,  as  they 
are  themselves  arts,  and  cannot  be  complete  without  the 
art  of  oratory,  but  are  nevertheless  insufficient  of  them¬ 
selves  to  form  an  orator,  it  is  made  a  question  whether  they 
are  necessary  to  this  art  3.  Of  what  service  is  it,  say 
some  people,  for  pleading  a  cause,  or  pronouncing  a  legal 
opinion,  to  know  how  equilateral  triangles  may  be  erected 
upon  a  given  line  ?  Or  how  will  he,  who  has  marked  the 
sounds  of  the  lyre  by  their  names  and  intervals,  defend  an 
accused  person,  or  direct  consultations,  the  better  on  that 
account  ?  4.  They  may  perhaps  reckon,  also,  many  speak¬ 
ers,  effective  in  every  way  in  the  forum,  who  have  never 
attended  a  geometrician,  and  who  know  nothing  of  musi¬ 
cians  except  by  the  common  pleasure  of  listening  to  them. 
To  these  observers  I  answer  in  the  first  place  (what  Cicero 
also  frequently  remarks  in  his  book  addressed  to  Brutus), 
that  it  is  not  such  an  orator  as  is  or  has  been,  that  is  to  be 
formed  by  us,  but  that  we  have  conceived  in  our  mind  an 
idea  of  the  perfect  orator ,  an  orator  deficient  in  no  point 
whatever.  5.  For  when  the  philosophers  would  form 
their  wise  man ,  who  is  to  be  perfect  in  every  respect,  and, 
as  they  say,  a  kind  of  mortal  god,  they  not  only  believe 
that  he  should  be  instructed,  in  a  general  knowledge  of 
divine  and  human  things,  but  conduct  him  through  a  course 
of  questions  which  are  certainly  little,  if  you  consider  them 
merely  in  themselves,  (as,  sometimes,  through  studied 
subtleties  of  argument,)  not  because  questions  about  horns 1 
or  crocodiles  2  can  form  a  wise  man,  but  because  a  wise  man 
ought  never  to  be  in  error  even  in  the  least  matters.  6.  In 
like  manner,  it  is  not  the  geometrician,  or  the  musician,  or 
the  other  studies  which  I  shall  add  to  theirs,  that  will  make 
the  perfect  orator  (who  ought  to  be  a  wise  man),  yet  these 
accomplishments  will  contribute  to  his  perfection.  We  see 

1  Puzzling  questions  which  appear  to  have  had  their  name  from  the  follow¬ 
ing  syllogism :  “You  have  what  you  have  not  lost;  but  you  have  not  lost 
horns  ;  therefore  you  have  horns.” 

Named  from  the  following  question :  “  A  crocodile,  having  seized  a 
woman’s  son,  said  he  would  restore  him  to  her  if  she  would  tell  the  truth. 
She  replied:  ‘You  will  not  restore  him.’  Ought  the  crocodile  to  have  re¬ 
stored  the  child  or  not?” 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  4 73 

an  antidote,  for  example,  and  other  medicines  to  heal  dis¬ 
eases  and  wounds,  compounded  of  many  and  sometimes 
opposite  ingredients,  from  the  various  qualities  of  which 
results  that  single  compound,  which  resembles  none  of 
them,  yet  takes  its  peculiar  virtues  from  them  all;  7.  mute 
insects,  too,  compose  the  exquisite  flavour  of  honey,  inimita¬ 
ble  by  human  reason,  of  various  sorts  of  flowers  and  juices  ; 
and  shall  we  wonder  that  eloquence,  than  which  the  provi¬ 
dence  of  the  gods  has  given  nothing  more  excellent  to 
men,  requires  the  aid  of  many  arts,  which,  even  though 
they  may  not  appear,  or  put  themselves  forward,  in  the 
course  of  a  speech,  yet  contribute  to  it  a  secret  power, 
and  are  silently  felt?  8.  “People  have  been  eloquent,” 
some  one  may  say,  “  without  these  arts ;  but  I  want  a 
perfect  orator.  “  They  contribute  little  assistance,  an¬ 
other  may  observe ;  but  that,  to  which  even  little  shall  be 
wanting,  will  not  be  a  whole ;  and  it  will  be  agreed  that 
perfection  is  a  whole,  of  which  though  the  hope  may  be 
on  a  distant  height  as  it  were,  yet  it  is  for  us  to  suggest 
every  means  of  attaining  it,  that  something  more,  at  least, 
may  thus  be  done.  But  why  should  our  courage  fail  us  ? 
Nature  does  not  forbid  the  formation  of  a  perfect  orator ; 
and  it  is  disgraceful  to  despair  of  what  is  possible. 

9.  For  myself,  I  could  be  quite  satisfied  with  the  judg¬ 
ment  of  the  ancients ;  for  who  is  ignorant  that  music 
(to  speak  of  that  science  first)  enjoyed,  in  the  days  of  an¬ 
tiquity,  so  much,  not  only  of  cultivation,  but  of  reverence, 
that  those  who  were  musicians  were  deemed  also  prophets 
and  sages,  as,  not  to  mention  others,  Orpheus 1  and  Linus , 2 
both  of  whom  are  transmitted  to  the  memory  of  posterity  as 
having  been  descended  from  the  gods,  and  the  one,  because 
he  soothed  the  rude  and  barbarous  minds  of  men  by  the 
wonderful  effect  of  his  strains,  as  having  drawn  after  him 
not  only  wild  beasts,  but  even  rocks  and  woods.  10.  Tima- 


1  The  famous  mythical  poet,  son  of  (Eagrus  and  the  muse  Calliope.  Such 
was  his  power  in  song  that  he  could  move  trees  and  rocks,  and  even  tame 

wild  beasts. 

2  A  hero  representing  probably  a  god  of  the  old  Greek  nature-worship. 
His  death  was  commemorated  in  widely  known  laments.  Tradition  says  he 
was  the  son  of  Apollo  and  the  princess  Tsamathe. 


As  to  music-, 
authority  fot 
its  use. 


Utility  of 
music. 


474  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

genes 1  declares  that  music  was  the  most  ancient  of  sciences 
connected  with  literature  ;  an  opinion  to  which  the  most 
celebrated  poets  give  their  support,  according  to  whom  the 
praises  of  gods  and  heroes  used  to  be  sung  to  the  lyre 
at  royal  banquets.  Does  not  Virgil’s  Iopas,2  too,  sing 
errantem  lunam  solisque  labores ,  “  the  wandering  moon, 
and  labours  of  the  sun ;  ”  the  illustrious  poet  thus  plainly 
asserting  that  music  is  united  with  the  knowledge  of  divine 
things  ?  If  this  position  be  granted,  music  will  be  necessary 
also  for  the  orator ;  for,  as  I  observed,  this  part  of  learning, 
which,  after  being  neglected  by  orators,  has  been  taken  up 
by  the  philosophers,  was  a  portion  of  our  business,  and, 
without  the  knowledge  of  such  subjects,  there  can  be  no 
perfect  eloquence. 

******* 

22.  But  let  us  consider  what  peculiar  advantage  he  who 
is  to  be  an  orator  may  expect  from  music.  Music  has  two 
kinds  of  measures,  the  one  in  the  sounds  of  the  voice ,  the 
other  in  the  motions  of  the  body ;  for  in  both  a  certain  due 
regulation  is  required.  Aristoxenus  3  the  musician  divides 
all  that  belongs  to  the  voice  into  pv0p,6s,  4  “rhythm,”  and 
/xeAo?  efi/xerpov,  5  “  melody  in  measure;  ”  of  which  the  one 
consists  in  modulation ,  the  other  in  singing  and  tunes. 
Are  not  all  these  qualifications,  then,  necessary  to  the  orator, 
the  one  of  which  relates  to  gesture,  the  second  to  the  collo¬ 
cation  of  words,  and  the  third  to  the  inflections  of  the  voice, 
which  in  speaking  are  extremely  numerous  ?  23.  Such 

is  undoubtedly  the  case,  unless  we  suppose,  perchance, 
that  a  regular  structure  and  smooth  combination  of  words 
is  requisite  only  in  poems  and  songs,  and  is  superfluous  in 
making  a  speech ;  or  that  composition  and  modulation  are 
not  to  be  varied  in  speaking,  as  in  music,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  subject.  24.  Music,  however,  by  means  of 

1  A  rhetorician  and  native  of  Alexandria.  In  55  b.c.  he  was  brought  cap¬ 
tive  to  Rome  and  practised  his  art  in  that  city.  He  was  disliked  by  Augustus 
for  his  freedom  of  speech. 

2  A  harper  at  Carthage. 

3  A  Greek  philosopher  and  musician,  a  native  of  Tarentum,  who  lived  about 
330  B.c.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Aristotle. 

4  Ruthmos.  6  Melos  emmetron. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  475 

the  tone  and  modulation  of  the  voice,  expresses  sublime 
thoughts  with  grandeur,  pleasant  ones  with  sweetness, 
and  ordinary  ones  with  calmness,  and  sympathises  in  its 
whole  art  with  the  feelings  attendant  on  what  is  expressed. 
25.  In  oratory,  accordingly,  the  raising,  lowering,  or  other 
inflexion  of  the  voice,  tends  to  move  the  feelings  of  the 
hearers ;  and  we  try  to  excite  the  indignation  of  the  judges 
in  one  modulation  of  phrase  and  voice,  (that  I  may  again 
use  the  same  term,)  and  their  pity  in  another;  for  we  see 
that  minds  are  affected  in  different  ways  even  by  musical 
instruments,  though  no  words  can  be  uttered  by  them. 

26.  A  graceful,  and  becoming  motion  of  the  body,  also, 
which  the  Greeks  call  evpvOfita,1  is  necessary,  and  cannot  be 
sought  from  any  other  art  than  music;  a  qualification  on 
which  no  small  part  of  oratory  depends,  and  for  treating 
on  which  a  peculiar  portion  of  our  work  is  set  apart.  If 
an  orator  shall  pay  extreme  attention  to  his  voice,  what 
is  so  properly  the  business  of  music  ?  But  neither  is  this 
department  of  my  work  to  be  anticipated  ;  so  that  we  must 
confine  ourselves,  in  the  mean  time,  to  the  single  example 
of  Caius  Gracchus,  the  most  eminent  orator  of  his  time,  be¬ 
hind  whom,  when  he  spoke  in  public,  a  musician  used  to 
stand,  and  to  give,  with  a  pitch-pipe,  which  the  Greeks  call 
r ovdpiov?  the  tones  in  which  his  voice  was  to  be  exerted. 
28.  To  this  he  attended  even  in  his  most  turbulent  ha¬ 
rangues,  both  when  he  frightened  the  patricians,  and  after 

he  began  to  fear  them. 

For  the  sake  of  the  less  learned,  and  those,  as  they  say, 
“  of  a  duller  muse,”  I  would  wish  to  remove  all  doubt  of 
the  utility  of  music.  29.  They  will  allow,  assuredly,  that 
the  poets  should  be  read  by  him  who  would  be  an  orator ; 
but  are  they,  then,  to  be  read  without  a  knowledge  of 
music  ?  If  any  one  is  so  blind  of  intellect,  however,  as  to 
hesitate  about  the  reading  of  other  poets,  he  will  doubtless 
admit  that  those  should  be  read  who  have  written  poems 
for  the  lyre.  30.  On  these  matters  I  should  have  to  en- 


1  The  term  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  grace  either  in  music  or  physical  exer- 
cise. 

2  The  term  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  a  tuning-pipe,  which  was  to  give  the 
pitch  to  the  speakers  or  singers. 


Necessary 
for  the 
understand 
ing  of 
literature. 


Utility  of 
geometry. 


476  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

large  more  fully,  if  I  recommended  this  as  a  new  study  ;  but 
since  it  has  been  perpetuated  from  -the  most  ancient  times, 
even  from  those  of  Chiron1  and  Achilles  to  our  own  (among 
all,  at  least,  who  have  not  been  averse  to  a  regular  course 
of  mental  discipline),  I  must  not  proceed  to  make  the  point 
doubtful  by  anxiety  to  defend  it. 

******* 

34.  As  to  geometry ,  people  admit  that  some  attention  to 
it  is  of  advantage  in  tender  years ;  for  they  allow  that  the 
thinking  powers  are  excited,  and  the  intellect  sharpened  by 
it,  and  that  a  quickness  of  perception  is  thence  produced ; 
but  they  fancy  that  it  is  not,  like  other  sciences,  profitable 
after  it  has  been  acquired,  but  only  whilst  it  is  being  studied. 
35.  Such  is  the  common  opinion  respecting  it.  But  it  is 
not  without  reason  that  the  greatest  men  have  bestowed 
extreme  attention  on  this  science  ;  for  as  geometry  is  divided 
between  numbers  and  figures,  the  knowledge  of  numbers 
assuredly,  is  necessary  not  only  to  an  orator,  but  to  every 
one  who  has  been  initiated  even  in  the  rudiments  of  learn¬ 
ing.  In  pleading  causes,  it  is  very  often  in  request ;  when 
the  speaker,  if  he  hesitates,  I  do  not  say  about  the  amount 
of  a  calculation,  but  if  he  even  betray,  by  any  uncertain  or 
awkward  movement  of  his  fingers,  a  want  of  confidence  in 
his  calculations,  is  thought  to  be  but  imperfectly  accom¬ 
plished  in  his  art.  36.  The  knowledge  of  linear  figures , 
too,  is  frequently  required  in  causes;  for  law-suits  occur 
concerning  boundaries  and  measures.  But  geometry  has 
a  still  greater  connexion  with  the  art  of  oratory. 

37..  Order,  in  the  first  place,  is  necessary  in  geometry; 
and  is  it  not  also  necessary  in  eloquence  ?  Geometry 
proves  what  follows  from  what  precedes,  what  is  unknown 
from  what  is  known ;  and  do  we  not  draw  similar  conclu¬ 
sions  in  speaking  ?  Does  not  the  well  known  mode  of  de¬ 
duction  from  a  number  of  proposed  questions  consist 
almost  wholly  in  syllogisms  ?  Accordingly  you  may  find 
more  persons  to  say  that  geometry  is  allied  to  logic,  than 
that  it  is  allied  to  rhetoric.  38.  But  even  an  orator,  though 

1  Chiron  was  the  son  of  Cronus  and  the  ocean  nymph  Philyra.  He  alone 
of  the  Centaurs  is  represented  as  wise  and  just,  and  was  the  master  and 
instructor  of  many  Grecian  heroes. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  477 

rarely,  will  yet  at  times  prove  logically,  for  he  will  use 
syllogisms  if  his  subject  shall  require  them,  and  will  of 
necessity  use  the  enthymem,  which  is  a  rhetorical  syllogism. 

Besides,  of  all  proofs,  the  strongest  are  what  are  called 
geometrical  demonstrations;  and  what  does  oratory  make 
its  object  more  indisputably  than  proof  ? 

19.  Geometry  often,  moreover,  by  demonstration,  proves  Character  of 
what  is  apparently  true  to  be  false.  This  is  also  done  geometry, 
with  respect  to  numbers,  by  means  of  certain  figures  which 
they  call  xjrevSoypa^LaL,1  and  at  which  we  were  accustomed 
to  play  when  we  were  boys.  But  there  are  other  questions 
of  a  higher  nature.  For  who  would  not  believe  the  as- 
serter  of  the  following  proposition :  “  Of  whatever  places 
the  boundary  lines  measure  the  same  length,  of  those 
places  the  areas  also,  which  are  contained  by  those  lines, 
must  necessarily  be  equal?”  40.  But  this  proposition  is 
fallacious;  for  it  makes  a  vast  difference  what  figure  the 
boundary  lines  may  form ;  and  historians,  who  have 
thought  that  the  dimensions  of  islands  are  sufficiently  indi¬ 
cated  by  the  space  traversed  in  sailing  round  them,  have 
been  justly  censured  by  geometricians.  41.  For  the 
nearer  to  perfection  any  figure  is,  the  greater  is  its  ca¬ 
pacity  ;  and  if  the  boundary  line,  accordingly,  shall  form  a 
circle  which  of  all  plane  figures  is  the  most  perfect,  it  will 
embrace  a  larger  area  than  if  it  shall  form  a  square  of 
equal  circumference.  Squares,  again,  contain  more  than 
triangles  of  equal  circuit,  and  triangles  themselves  contain 
more  when  their  sides  are  equal  than  when  they  are 

Un46.UNeed  I  add  that  geometry  raises  itself  still  higher  Astronomy; 
so  as  even  to  ascertain  the  system  of  the  world  ?  When  it  V- 

demonstrates,  by  calculations,  the  regular  and  appointed 
movements  of  the  celestial  bodies,  we  learn  that,  in  that 
system,  there  is  nothing  unordained  or  fortuitous ;  a 
branch  of  knowledge  which  may  be  sometimes  of  use  to 
the  orator.  47.  When  Pericles  freed  the  Athenians  from 
fear  at  the  time  that  they  were  alarmed  by  an  eclipse  ot 
the  sun,  by  explaining  to  them  the  causes  of  the  phaenome- 

1  The  term  used  by  the  Greeks  with  reference  to  the  drawing  of  false  geo¬ 
metric  proofs.  Of  these,  no  example  is  to  be  found. 


478  Source  Book  of  the  History .  of  Education 

non ;  or  when  Sulpicius  Gallus,1  in  the  army  of  Paulus 
yEmilius,2  made  a  speech  on  an  eclipse  of  the  moon,  that 
the  minds  of  the  soldiers  might  not  be  terrified  as  by  a 
supernatural  prodigy,  do  they  not,  respectively,  appear  to 
have  discharged  the  duty  of  an  orator?  48.  Had  Nicias3 
been  possessed  of  such  knowledge  in  Sicily,  he  would  not 
have  been  confounded  with  similar  terror,  and  have  given 
over  to  destruction  the  finest  of  the  Athenian  armies ;  as 
Dion,4  we  know,  when  he  went  to  overthrow  the  tyranny 
of  Dionysius,  was  not  deterred  by  a  similar  phenomenon. 
49.  Though  the  utility  of  geometry  in  war,  however,  be 
put  out  of  the  question,  though  we  do  not  dwell  upon  the 
fact  that  Archimedes 5  alone  protracted  the  siege  of  Syra¬ 
cuse  to  a  great  extent,  it  is  sufficient,  assuredly,  to  estab¬ 
lish  what  I  assert,  that  numbers  of  questions,  which  it  is 
difficult  to  solve  by  any  other  method,  as  those  about  the 
mode  of  dividing,  about  division  to  infinity,  and  about  the 
rate  of  progressions,  are  accustomed  to  be  solved  by  those 
geometrical  demonstrations ;  so  that  if  an  orator  has  to 
speak  (as  the  next  book  will  show)  on  all  subjects,  no  man, 
assuredly,  can  become  a  perfect  orator  without  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  geometry. 


CHAPTER  XII 

i.  It  is  a  common  question  whether,  supposing  all  these 
things  are  to  be  learned,  they  can  all  be  taught  and 
acquired  at  the  same  time ;  for  some  deny  that  this  is  pos¬ 
sible,  as  the  mind  must  be  confused  and  wearied  by  so 
many  studies  of  different  tendency  for  which  neither  the 

1  In  168  B.c.  he  served  as  tribune  of  the  soldiers  in  the  army  of  Paulus 
iEmilius  in  the  war  against  Macedonia.  By  foretelling  an  eclipse,  he  gained 
the  confidence  of  the  people  and  was  made  consul  166  B.c. 

2  Born  about  230  b.c.,  and  died  160  b.c.  He  was  one  of  the  best  speci¬ 
mens  of  the  high  Roman  nobles.  He  received  the  surname  Macedonicus 
because  of  his  brilliant  victory  at  Pydna  in  168  B.c. 

3  One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Athenian  generals  engaged  during 
the  Peloponnesian  War. 

4  A  native  of  Syracuse  who  lived  about  408-353  b.c. 

5  One  of  the  greatest  mathematicians  of  antiquity.  He  was  born  at 
Syracuse  287  b.c.,  and  was  killed  by  a  soldier  212  b.c. 


Is  there 
danger  of 
too  many 
studies? 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  479 

understanding,  nor  the  body,  nor  time  itself,  can  suffice ; 
and  even  though  mature  age  may  endure  such  labour,  yet 
that  of  childhood  ought  not  to  be  thus  burdened. 

2.  But  these  reasoners  do  not  understand  how  great  the 
power  of  the  human  mind  is ;  that  mind  which  is  so  busy 
and  active,  and  which  directs  its  attention,  so  to  speak,  to 
every  quarter,  so  that  it  cannot  even  confine  itself  to  do 
only  one  thing,  but  bestows  its  force  upon  several,  not 
merely  in  the  same  day,  but  at  the  same  moment.  3.  Do 
not  players  on  the  harp,  for  example,  exert  their  memory, 
and  attend  to  the  sound  of  their  voice,  and  the  various  in¬ 
flexions  of  it,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  strike  part  of 
the  strings  with  their  right  hand,  and  pull,  stop,  or  let 
loose  others  with  their  left,  while  not  even  their  foot  is 
idle,  but  beats  time  to  their  playing,  all  these  acts  being 
done  simultaneously  ?  4.  Do  not  we  advocates,  when  sur¬ 

prised  by  a  sudden  necessity  to  plead,  say  one  thing  while 
we  are  thinking  of  what  is  to  follow,  and  while,  at  the  very 
same  moment,  the  invention  of  arguments,  the  choice  of 
words,  the  arrangement  of  matter,  gesture,  delivery,  look, 
and  attitude,  are  necessarily  objects  of  our  attention?  If 
all  these  considerations,  of  so  varied  a  nature,  are  forced, 
as  by  a  single  effort,  before  our  mental  vision,  why  may 
we  not  divide  the  hours  of  the  day  among  different  kinds 
of  study,  especially  as  variety  itself  refreshes  and  recruits 
the  mind,  while,  on  the  contrary,  nothing  is  more  annoying 
than  to  continue  at  one  uniform  labour  ?  Accordingly 
writing  is  relieved  by  reading,  and  the  tedium  of  reading 
itself  is  relieved  by  changes  of  subject.  5.  However 
many  things  we  may  have  done,  we  are  yet  to  a  certain 
degree  fresh  for  that  which  we  are  going  to  begin.  Who, 
on  the  contrary,  would  not  be  stupefied,  if  he  were  to  listen 
to  the  same  teacher  of  any  art,  whatever  it  might  be, 
through  the  whole  day  ?  But  by  change  a  person  will  be 
recruited ;  as  is  the  case  with  respect  to  food,  by  varieties 
of  which  the  stomach  is  re-invigorated,  and  is  fed  with 
several  sorts  less  unsatisfactory  than  with  one.  Or  let 
those  objectors  tell  me  what  other  mode  there  is  of  learn¬ 
ing.  Ought  we  to  attend  to  the  teacher  of  grammar  only, 
and  then  to  the  teacher  of  geometry  only,  and  cease  to 
think,  during  the  second  course,  of  what  we  learned  in  the 


Power  of  the 
human  mind 
to  attend  to 
many  things. 


Boys  can 
endure 
much  study. 


480  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

first  ?  Should  we  then  transfer  ourselves  to  the  musician, 
our  previous  Studies  being  still  allowed  to  escape  us  ?  Or 
while  we  are  studying  Latin,  ought  we  to  pay  no  attention 
to  Greek  ?  Or,  to  make  an  end  of  my  questions  at  once, 
ought  we  to  do  nothing  but  what  comes  last  before  us  ? 
7.  Why,  then,  do  we  not  give  similar  counsel  to  husband¬ 
men,  that  they  should  not  cultivate  at  the  same  time  their 
fields  and  their  vineyards,  their  olives  and  other  trees,  and 
that  they  should  not  bestow  attention  at  once  on  their 
meadows,  their  cattle,  their  gardens,  and  their  bee-hives  ? 
Why  do  we  ourselves  devote  some  portion  of  our  time  to 
our  public  business,  some  to  the  wants  of  our  friends,  some 
to  our  domestic  accounts,  some  to  the  care  of  our  persons, 
and  some  to  our  pleasures,  any  one  of  which  occupations 
would  weary  us,  if  we  pursued  it  without  intermission  ? 
So  much  more  easy  is  it  to  do  many  things  one  after  the 
other,  than  to  do  one  thing  for  a  long  time. 

8.  That  boys  will  be  unable  to  bear  the  fatigue  of 
many  studies,  is  by  no  means  to  be  apprehended ;  for  no 
age  suffers  less  from  fatigue.  This  may  perhaps  appear 
strange ;  but  we  may  prove  it  by  experience.  9.  For 
minds,  before  they  are  hardened,  are  more  ready  to  learn ; 
as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  children,  within  two  years 
after  they  can  fairly  pronounce  words,  speak  almost  the 
whole  language,  though  no  one  incites  them  to  learn ;  but 
for  how  many  years  does  the  Latin  tongue  resist  the  efforts 
of  our  purchased  slaves!  You  may  well  understand,  if 
you  attempt  to  teach  a  grown  up  person  to  read,  that 
those  who  do  everything  in  their  own  art  with  excellence, 
are  not  without  reason  called  'iraLhofjLaOels,  that  is,  “in¬ 
structed  from  boyhood.”  10.  The  temper  of  boys  is 
better  able  to  bear  labour  than  that  of  men ;  for,  as  neither 
the  falls  of  children,  with  which  they  are  so  often  thrown 
on  the  ground,  nor  their  crawling  on  hands  and  knees,  nor, 
soon  after,  constant  play,  and  running  all  day  hither  and 
thither,  inconvenience  their  bodies  so  much  as  those  of 
adults,  because  they  are  of  little  weight,  and  no  burden  to 
themselves,  so  their  minds  likewise,  I  conceive,  suffer  less 
from  fatigue,  because  they  exert  themselves  with  less 
effort,  and  do  not  apply  to  study  by  putting  any  force  upon 
themselves,  but  merely  yield  themselves  to  others  to  be 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  481 


formed.  11.  Moreover,  in  addition  to  the  other  pliancy 
of  that  age,  they  follow  their  teachers,  as  it  were,  with 
greater  confidence,  and  do  not  set  themselves  to  measure 
what  they  have  already  done.  Consideration  about  labour 
is  as  yet  unknown  to  them ;  and,  as  we  ourselves  have 
frequently  experienced,  toil  has  less  effect  upon  the 
powers  than  thought. 

12.  Nor  will  they  ever,  indeed,  have  more  disposable 
time ;  because  all  improvement  at  this  age  is  from  hear¬ 
ing.  When  the  pupil  shall  retire  by  himself  to  write,  when 
he  shall  produce  and  compose  from  his  own  mind,  he  will 
then  either  not  have  leisure,  or  will  want  inclination,  to 
commence  such  exercises  as  I  have  specified.  13.  Since 
the  teacher  of  grammar,  therefore,  cannot  occupy  the 
whole  day,  and  indeed  ought  not  to  do  so,  lest  he  should 
disgust  the  mind  of  his  pupil,  to  what  studies  can  we 
better  devote  his  fragmentary  intervals,  so  to  term  them, 
of  time  ?  14.  For  I  would  not  wish  the  pupil  to  be  worn 

out  in  these  exercises ;  nor  do  I  desire  that  he  should  sing, 
or  accompany  songs  with  musical  notes,  or  descend  to  the 
minutest  investigations  of  geometry.  Nor  would  I  make 
him  like  an  actor  in  delivery,  or  like  a  dancing-master  in 
gesture ;  though,  if  I  did  require  all  such  qualifications, 
there  would  still  be  abundance  of  time ;  for  the  imma¬ 
ture  part  of  life,  which  is  devoted  to  learning,  is  long  ;  and 
I  am  not  speaking  of  slow  intellects.  15.  Why  did  Plato, 
let  me  ask,  excel  in  all  these  branches  of  knowledge  which 
I  think  necessary  to  be  acquired  by  him  who  would  be  an 
orator?  He  did  so,  because,  not  being  satisfied  with  the 
instruction  which  Athens  could  afford,  or  with  the  science 
of  the  Pythagoreans,1  to  whom  he  had  sailed  in  Italy,  he 
went  also  to  the  priests  of  Egypt,  and  learned  their 
mysteries. 

1 6.  We  shroud  our  own  indolence  under  the  pretext  of 
difficulty  ;  for  we  have  no  real  love  of  our  work  ;  nor  is 
eloquence  ever  sought  by  us,  because  it  is  the  most  honour¬ 
able  and  noble  of  attainments,  or  for  its  own  sake ;  but  we 
apply  ourselves  to  labour  only  with  mean  views  and  for 


Abundance 
of  time  for 
all  necessary 
acquire¬ 
ments. 


Unreason¬ 
able  pretexts 
for  not 
pursuing 
studies. 


1  One  of  the  most  important  of  the  ancient  systems  of  philosophy.  It  was 
founded  by  Pythagoras  (580-504  B.C.). 


Boys  should 
receive 
instruction 
from  the 
professor  of 
rhetoric  at 
an  early  age. 


482  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

sordid  gain.  1 7.  Plenty  of  orators  may  speak  in  the  forum, 
with  my  permission,  and  acquire  riches  also,  without  such 
accomplishments  as  I  recommend  ;  only  may  every  trader 
in  contemptible  merchandise  be  richer  than  they,  and  may 
the  public  crier  make  greater  profit  by  his  voice  !  I  would 
not  wish  to  have  even  for  a  reader  of  this  work  a  man 
who  would  compute  what  returns  his  studies  will  bring 
him.  18.  But  he  who  shall  have  conceived,  as  with  a 
divine  power  of  imagination,  the  very  idea  itself  of  genuine 
oratory,  and  who  shall  keep  before  his  eyes  true  eloquence, 
the  qneejiy  as  an  eminent  poet  calls  her,  of  the  zvorldy  and 
shall  seek  his  gain,  not  from  the  pay  that  he  receives  for 
his  pleadings,  but  from  his  own  mind,  and  from  contem¬ 
plation  and  knowledge,  a  gain  which  is  enduring  and 
independent  of  fortune,  will  easily  prevail  upon  himself 
to  devote  the  time,  which  others  spend  at  shows,  in  the 
Campus  Martius,1  at  dice,  or  in  idle  talk,  to  say  nothing 
of  sleep  and  the  prolongation  of  banquets,  to  the  studies 
of  geometry  and  music  ;  and  how  much  more  pleasure 
will  he  secure  from  such  pursuits  than  from  unintellectual 
gratifications !  19.  For  divine  providence  has  granted 

this  favour  to  mankind,  that  the  more  honourable  occupa¬ 
tions  are  also  the  more  pleasing.  But  the  very  pleasure 
of  these  reflections  has  carried  me  too  far.  Let  what 
I  have  said,  therefore,  suffice  concerning  the  studies  in 
which  a  boy  is  to  be  instructed  before  he  enters  on  more 
important  occupations  ;  the  next  book  will  commence,  as 
it  were,  a  new  subject,  and  enter  on  the  duties  of  the 
teacher  of  rhetoric. 

BOOK  II.,  CHAPTER  I 

1.  It  has  been  a  prevalent  custom  (which  daily  gains 
ground  more  and  more)  for  pupils  to  be  sent  to  the 
teachers  of  eloquence,  to  the  Latin  teachers  always, 
and  to  the  Greeks  sometimes,  at  a  more  advanced 
age  than  reason  requires.  Of  this  practice  there  are 

1  A  plain  lying  to  the  north  of  Rome,  part  of  which  served  as  an  exercise 
ground  for  the  Roman  youths,  and  part  of  which  served  as  meeting-place  for 
the  popular  assemblies. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  483 

two  causes:  that  the  rhetoricians,  especially  our  own, 
have  relinquished  a  part  of  their  duties,  and  that  the 
grammarians  have  appropriated  what  does  not  belong  to 
them.  2.  The  rhetoricians  think  it  their  business  merely 
to  declaim,  and  to  teach  the  art  and  practice  of  declaim¬ 
ing,  confining  themselves,  too,  to  deliberative  and  judicial 
subjects,  (for  others  they  despise  as  beneath  their  profes¬ 
sion,)  while  the  grammarians,  on  their  part,  do  not  deem 
it  sufficient  to  have  taken  what  has  been  left  them,  (on 
which  account  also  gratitude  should  be  accorded  them,) 
but  encroach  even  upon  prosopopeiae 1  and  suasory 2 
speeches,  in  which  even  the  very  greatest  efforts  of 
eloquence  are  displayed.  3.  Hence,  accordingly,  it  has 
happened,  that  what  was  the  first  business  of  the  one  art 
has  become  the  last  of  the  other,  and  that  boys  of  an 
age  to  be  employed  in  higher  departments  of  study  remain 
sunk  in  the  lower  school,  and  practise  rhetoric  under  the 
grammarian.  Thus,  what  is  eminently  ridiculous,  a  youth 
seems  unfit  to  be  sent  to  a  teacher  of  declamation  until  he 

already  knows  how  to  declaim. 

4.  Let  us  assign  each  of  these  professions  its  due 
limits.  Let  grammar  (which,  turning  it  into  a  Latin  word, 
they  have  called  literatura ,  “literature”)  know  its  own 
boundaries,  especially  as  it  is  so  far  advanced  beyond  the 
humility  indicated  by  its  name,  to  which  humility  the  early 
grammarians  restricted  themselves ;  for,  though  but  weak 
at  its  source,  yet,  having  gained  strength  from  the  poets 
and  historians,  it  now  flows  on  in  a  full  channel ,  since, 
besides  the  art  of  speaking  correctly,  which  would  other¬ 
wise  be  far  from  a  comprehensive  art,  it  has  engrossed 
the  study  of  almost  all  the  highest  departments  of  learning  , 
5.  and  let  not  rhetoric ,  to  which  the  power  of  eloquence 
has  given  its  name,  decline  its  own  duties,  or  rejoice  that 
the  task  belonging  to  itself  is  appropriated  by  another ; 
for  while  it  neglects  its  duties,  it  is  almost  expelled  from 
its  domain.  6.  I  would  not  deny,  indeed,  that  some  of 
those  who  profess  grammar,  may  make  such  progress  in 


1  Speeches  which  are  suited  to  the  character  of  the  persons  by  whom  they 

are  supposed  to  have  been  spoken. 

2  Speeches  of  a  kind  which  are  termed  deliberative. 


The  profes¬ 
sion  of  the 
grammarian 
and  of  the 
teacher  of 
rhetoric 
should  be  in 
some  degree 
united. 


Character  of 
the  rhetori¬ 
cal  study. 


484  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

knowledge  as  to  be  able  to  teach  the  principles  of  oratory ; 
but,  when  they  do  so,  they  will  be  discharging  the  duties 
of  a  rhetorician,  and  not  their  own. 

7.  We  make  it  also  a  subject  of  inquiry,  when  a  boy 
may  be  considered  ripe  for  learning  what  rhetoric  teaches. 
In  which  inquiry  it  is  not  to  be  considered  of  what  age  a 
boy  is,  but  what  progress  he  has  already  made  in  his 
studies.  That  I  may  not  make  a  long  discussion,  I  think 
that  the  question  when  a  boy  ought  to  be  sent  to  the  teacher 
of  rhetoric ,  is  best  decided  by  the  answer,  when  he  shall  be 
qualified.  8.  But  this  very  point  depends  upon  the 
preceding  subject  of  consideration  ;  for  if  the  office  of 
the  grammarian  is  extended  even  to  suasory  speeches,  the 
necessity  for  the  rhetorician  will  come  later.  If  the 
rhetorician,  however,  does  not  shrink  from  the  earliest 
duties  of  his  profession,  his  attention  is  required  even  from 
the  time  when  the  pupil  begins  narrations,  and  produces 
his  little  exercises  in  praising  and  blaming.  9.  Do  we  not 
know  that  it  was  a  kind  of  exercise  among  the  ancients, 
suitable  for  improvement  in  eloquence,  for  pupils  to  speak 
on  theses}  common  places ,2  and  other  questions,  (without 
embracing  particular  circumstances  or  persons,)  on  which 
causes,  as  well  real  as  imaginary,  depend  ?  Hence  it  is 
evident  how  dishonourably  the  profession  of  rhetoric  has 
abandoned  that  department  which  it  held  originally,  and 
for  a  long  time  solely.  10.  But  what  is  there  among  those 
exercises,  of  which  I  have  just  now  spoken,  that  does  not 
relate  both  to  other  matters  peculiar  to  rhetoricians,  and, 
indisputably,  to  the  sort  of  causes  pleaded  in  courts  of 
justice  ?  Have  we  not  to  make  statements  of  facts  in  the 
forum  ?  I  know  not  whether  that  department  of  rhetoric 
is  not  most  of  all  in  request  there.  1 1.  Are  not  eulogy 
and  invective  often  introduced  in  those  disputations  ?  Do 
not  common  places,  as  well  those  which  are  levelled  against 
vice,  (such  as  were  composed,  we  read,  by  Cicero,)  as  those 

By  this  term  is  meant  such  questions  on  either  side  of  which  a  rhetorician 
may  speak  with  plausibility. 

By  this  Quintilian  refers  to  general  disquisitions  on  points  of  morality,  or 
questions  on  points  of  law,  as,  for  example,  what  credit  should  be  given  to 
written  documents. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  485 

in  which  questions  are  discussed  generally,  (such  as  were 
published  by  Quintus  Hortensius,1  as  Ought  we  to  trust  to 
light  proofs  ?  and  for  witnesses  and  against  witnesses , )  mix 
themselves  with  the  inmost  substance  of  causes  ?  12.  These 
weapons  are  in  some  degree  to  be  prepared,  that  we  may 
use  them  whenever  circumstances  require.  He  who  shall 
suppose  that  these  matters  do  not  concern  the  orator,  will 
think  that  a  statue  is  not  begun  when  its  limbs  are  cast. 
Nor  let  any  one  blame  this  haste  of  mine  (as  some  will 
consider  it)  on  the  supposition  that  I  think  the  pupil  who 
is  to  be  committed  to  the  professor  of  rhetoric  is  to  be 
altogether  withdrawn  from  the  teachers  of  grammar. 
13.  To  these  also  their  proper  time  shall  be  allowed,  nor 
need  there  be  any  fear  that  the  boy  will  be  overburdened 
with  the  lessons  of  two  masters.  His  labour  will  not  be 
increased,  but  that  which  was  confounded  under  one  master 
will  be  divided ;  and  each  tutor  will  thus  be  more  efficient 
in  his  own  province.  This  method,  to  which  the  Greeks 
still  adhere,  has  been  disregarded  by  the  Latin  rhetoricians, 
and,  indeed,  with  some  appearance  of  excuse,  as  there 
have  been  others  to  take  their  duty. 


CHAPTER  II 

x.  As  soon  therefore  as  a  boy  shall  have  attained  such 
proficiency  in  his  studies,  as  to  be  able  to  comprehend 
what  we  have  called  the  first  precepts  of  the  teachers  of 
rhetoric,  he  must  be  put  under  the  professors  of  that  art. 

2.  Of  these  professors  the  morals  must  first  be  ascer¬ 
tained  ;  a  point  of  which  I  proceed  to  treat  in  this  part  of 
my  work,  not  because  I  do  not  think  that  the  same  exami¬ 
nation  is  to  be  made,  and  with  the  utmost  care,,  in  regard 
also  to  other  teachers,  (as  indeed  I  have  shown  in  the  pre¬ 
ceding  book,)  but  because  the  very  age  of  the  pupils  makes 
attention  to  the  matter  still  more  necessary.  3.  For  boys 
are  consigned  to  these  professors  when  almost  grown  up, 
and  continue  their  studies  under  them  even  after  they 
are  become  men ;  and  greater  care  must  in  consequence 
be  adopted  with  regard  to  them,  in  order  that  the  purity 

1  See  Book  I.,  Ch.  I.,  sec.  6. 


Choice  of 
teacher. 


486  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Attitude  of 
teacher 
toward 
pupils. 


Attitude 
of  pupils. 


of  the  master  may  secure  their  more  tender  years  from 
corruption,  and  his  authority  deter  their  bolder  age  from 
licentiousness.  4.  Nor  is  it  enough  that  he  give,  in  him¬ 
self,  an  example  of  the  strictest  morality,  unless  he  regu¬ 
late,  also,  by  severity  of  discipline,  the  conduct  of  those 
who  come  to  receive  his  instructions. 

Let  him  adopt,  then,  above  all  things,  the  feelings  of  a 
parent  towards  his  pupils,  and  consider  that  he  succeeds 
to  the  place  of  those  by  whom  the  children  were  entrusted 
to  him.  5.  Let  him  neither  have  vices  in  himself,  nor 
tolerate  them  in  others.  Let  his  austerity  not  be  stern, 
nor  his  affability  too  easy,  lest  dislike  arise  from  the  one, 
or  contempt  from  the  other.  Let  him  discourse  frequently 
on  what  is  honourable  and  good,  for  the  oftener  he  admon¬ 
ishes,  the  more  seldom  will  he  have  to  chastise.  Let  him 
not  be  of  an  angry  temper,  and  yet  not  a  conniver  at  what 
ought  to  be  corrected.  Let  him  be  plain  in  his  mode  of 
teaching,  and  patient  of  labour,  but  rather  diligent  in  exact¬ 
ing  tasks  than  fond  of  giving  them  of  excessive  length. 
6.  Let  him  reply  readily  to  those  who  put  questions  to 
him,  and  question  of  his  own  accord  those  who  do  not.  In 
commending  the  exercises  of  his  pupils,  let  him  be  neither 
niggardly  nor  lavish ;  for  the  one  quality  begets  dislike  of 
labour,  and  the  other  self-complacency.  7.  In  amending 
what  requires  correction,  let  him  not  be  harsh,  and,  least 
of  all,  not  reproachful ;  for  that  very  circumstance,  that 
some  tutors  blame  as  if  they  hated,  deters  many  young 
men  from  their  proposed  course  of  study.  8.  Let  him 
every  day  say  something,  and  even  much,  which,  when  the 
pupils  hear,  they  may  carry  away  with  them,  for  though 
he  may  point  out  to  them,  in  their  course  of  reading, 
plenty  of  examples  for  their  imitation,  yet  the  living  voice , 
as  it  is  called,  feeds  the  mind  more  nutritiously,  and 
especially  the  voice  of  the  teacher,  whom  his  pupils,  if 
they  are  but  rightly  instructed,  both  love  and  reverence. 
How  much  more  readily  we  imitate  those  whom  we  like, 
can  scarcely  be  expressed. 

9-  The  liberty  of  standing  up  and  showing  exultation 
in  giving  applause,  as  is  done  under  most  teachers,  is  by 
no  means  to  be  allowed  to  boys ;  for  the  approbation  even 
of  young  men,  when  they  listen  to  others,  ought  to  be  but 


• Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  4^7 

temperate.  Hence  it  will  result  that  the  pupil  will  depend 
on  the  judgment  of  the  master,  and  will  think  that  he  has 
expressed  properly  whatever  shall  have  been  approved  by 
him.  io.  But  that  most  mischievous  politeness ,  as  it  is 
now  termed,  which  is  shown  by  students  in  their  praise  of 
each  other’s  compositions,  whatever  be  their  merits,  is.  not 
only  unbecoming  and  theatrical,  and  foreign  to  strictly 
regulated  schools,  but  even  a  most  destructive  enemy  to 
study,  for  care  and  toil  may  well  appear  superfluous,  when 
praise  is  ready  for  whatever  the  pupils  have  produced, 
ii  Those  therefore  who  listen,  as  well  as  he  who  speaks, 
ought  to  watch  the  countenance  of  the  master,  for  they 
will  thus  discern  what  is  to  be  approved  and  what  to  be 
condemned ;  and  thus  power  will  be  gained  from  compo¬ 
sition,  and  judgment  from  being  heard.  12.  But  now, 
eager  and  ready,  they  not  only  . start  up  at  every  period, 
but  dart  forward,  and  cry  out  with  indecorous  transports. 

The  compliment  is  repaid  in  kind,  and  upon  such  applause 
depends  the  fortune  of  a  declamation;  and  hence  result 
vanity  and  self-conceit,  insomuch  that,  being  elated  with 
the  tumultuous  approbation  of  their  class-fellows,  they  aie 
inclined,  if  they  receive  but  little  praise  from  the  master, 
to  form  an  ill  opinion  of  him.  13.  But  let  masters,  also, 
desire  to  be  heard  themselves  with  attention  and  modesty. ; 
for  the  master  ought  not  to  speak  to  suit  the  taste  of  his 
pupils,  but  the  pupils  to  suit  that  of  the  master.  If  pos¬ 
sible  moreover,  his  attention  should  be  directed  to  observe 
what  each  pupil  commends  in  his  speeches,  and  for  what 
reason ;  and  he  may  then  rejoice  that  what  he  says  will 
give  pleasure,  not  more  on  his  own  account  than  on  that 

of  his  pupils  who  judge  with  correctness. 

14.  That  mere  boys  should  sit  mixed  with  young  men,  importance 
I  do  not  approve ;  for  though  such  a  man  as  ought  to  pre-  °u™°rca_ 
side  over  their  studies  and  conduct,  may  keep  even  the  tions> 
eldest  of  his  pupils  under  control,  yet  the  more  tender 
ought  to  be  separate  from  the  more  mature,,  and  they 
should  all  be  kept  free,  not  merely  from  the  guilt  of  licen¬ 
tiousness,  but  even  from  the  suspicion  of  it.  15-  inis 
point  I  thought  proper  briefly  to  notice  ;  that  the  master 
and  his  school  should  be  clear  of  gross  vice,  I  do  not  sup¬ 
pose  it  necessary  to  intimate.  And  if  there  is  any  father 


Earlier 
teachers  to 
be  well 
qualified. 


Mistakes 
commonly 
made  on 
this  point. 


488  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

who  would  not  shrink  from  flagrant  vice  in  choosing  a 
tutor  for  his  son,  let  him  be  assured  that  all  other  rules, 
which  I  am  endeavouring  to  lay  down  for  the  benefit  of 

youth,  are,  when  this  consideration  is  disregarded,  useless 
to  him. 

CHAPTER  III 

I.  Nor  is  the  opinion  of  those  to  be  passed  in  silence, 
who,  even  when  they  think  boys  fit  for  the  professor  of 
rhetoric,  imagine  that  he  is  not  at  once  to  be  consigned  to 
the  most  eminent,  but  detain  him  for  some  time  under 
inferior  teachers,  with  the  notion  that  moderate  ability  in 
a  master  is  not  only  better  adapted  for  beginning  instruc¬ 
tion  in  art,  but  easier  for  comprehension  and  imitation,  as 
well  as  less  disdainful  of  undertaking  the  trouble  of  the 
elements.  2.  On  this  head  I  think  no  long  labour  neces¬ 
sary  to  show,  how  much  better  it  is  to  be  imbued  with  the 
best  instructions,  and  how  much  difficulty  is  attendant  on 
eradicating  faults  which  have  once  gained  ground,  as 
double  duty  falls .  on .  succeeding  masters,  and  the  task 
indeed  of  unteaching  is  heavier  and  more  important  than 
that  of  teaching  at  first.  3.  Accordingly  they  say  that 
Timotheus,1  a  famous  instructor  in  playing  the  flute,  was 
accustomed  to  ask  as  much  more  pay  from  those  whom 
another  had  taught  as  from  those  who  presented  them¬ 
selves  to  him  in  a  state  of  ignorance.  4.  The  mistakes 
committed  in  the  matter,  however,  are  two;  one,  that  people 
think  inferior  teachers  sufficient  for  a  time,  and,  from 
having  an  easily  satisfied  appetite,  are  content  with  their 
instructions ;  (such  supineness,  though  deserving  of  repre¬ 
hension,  would  yet  be  in  some  degree  endurable,  if  teachers 
of  that  class  taught  only  worse,  and  not  less  ;)  the  other, 
which  is  even  more  common,  that  people  imagine  that  those 
who  have  attained  eminent  qualifications  for  speaking  will 
not  descend  to  inferior  matters,  and  that  this  is  sometimes 
the  case  because  they  disdain  to  bestow  attention  on 
minuter  points,  and  sometimes  because  they  cannot  give 
instruction  in  them.  5*  For  my  part,  I  do  not  consider 

A  famous  flute  player  of  Thebes,  who  flourished  under  Alexander  the 
Great. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  489 

him,  who  is  unwilling  to  teach  little  things,  in  the  number  Best 
of  preceptors;  but  I  argue  that  the  ablest  teachers  can 
teach  little  things  best,  if  they  will ;  first,  because  it  is  things  as 
likely  that  he  who  excels  others  in  eloquence,  has  gained  well  as  best 
the  most  accurate  knowledge  of  the  means  by  which  men  in  great- 
attain  eloquence;  6.  secondly,  because  method,  which, 
with  the  best  qualified  instructors,  is  always  plainest,  is 
of  great  efficacy  in  teaching ;  and  lastly,  because  no  man 
rises  to  such  a  height  in  greater  things  that  lesser  fade 
entirely  from  his  view.  Unless  indeed  we  believe  that 
though  Phidias1  made  a  Jupiter  well,  another  might  have 
wrought,  in  better  style  than  he,  the  accessories  to  the 
decoration  of  the  work  ;  or  that  an  orator  may  not  know 
how  to  speak  ;  or  that  an  eminent  physician  may  be  unable 
to  cure  trifling  ailments. 

7.  Is  there  not  then,  it  may  be  asked,  a  certain  height 
of  eloquence  too  elevated  for  the  immaturity  of  boyhood 
to  comprehend  it  ?  I  readily  confess  that  there  is ,  but 
the  eloquent  professor  must  also  be  a  man  of  sense,  not 
ignorant  of  teaching,  and  lowering  himself  to  the  capacity 
of  the  learner ;  as  any  fast  walker,  if  he  should  happen  to 
walk  with  a  child,  would  give  him  his  hand,  relax  his  pace, 
and  not  go  on  quicker  than  his  companion  could  follow. 

8.  What  shall  be  said,  too,  if  it  generally  happens  that 
instructions  given  by  the  most  learned  are  far  more  easy 
to  be  understood,  and  more  perspicuous  than  those  of 
others  ?  For  perspicuity  is  the  chief  virtue  of.  eloquence, 
and  the  less  ability  a  man  has,  the  more  he  tries  to  raise 
and  swell  himself  out,  as  those  of  short  stature  exalt  them¬ 
selves  on  tip-toe,  and  the  weak  use  most  threats.  9*  As  to 
those  whose  style  is  inflated,  displaying  a  vitiated  taste, 
and  who  are  fond  of  sounding  words,  or  faulty  from  any 
other  mode  of  vicious  affectation,  I  am  convinced  that  they 
labour  under  the  fault,  not  of  strength,  but  of  weakness, 
as  bodies  are  swollen,  not  with  health,  but  with  disease, 
and  as  men  who  have  erred  from  the  straight  road  gener¬ 
ally  make  stoppages.  Accordingly,  the  less  able  a  teacher 
is,  the  more  obscure  will  he  be. 

1  The  famous  Greek  artist;  was  born  at  Athens  about  500  B.C.,  and  died 
in  432  B.C. 


49°  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Better 

teachers  will 
have  better 
pupils. 

Their 

influence 

reciprocal. 


Variety  of 
capacity  and 
disposition 
requires 
variety  of 
treatment. 


io.  It  has  not  escaped  my  memory,  that  I  said  in  the 
preceding  book,  (when  I  observed  that  education  in  schools 
was  preferable  to  that  at  home,)  that  pupils  commencing 
their  studies,  or  but  little  advanced  in  them,  devote  them¬ 
selves  more  readily  to  imitate  their  school-fellows  than  their 
master,  such  imitation  being  more  easy  to  them.  This  re¬ 
mark  may  be  understood  by  some  in  such  a  sense,  that  the 
opinion  which  I  now  advocate  may  appear  inconsistent  with 
that  which  I  advanced  before,  n.  But  such  inconsistency 
will  be  far  from  me;  for  what  I  then  said  is  the  very  best 
of  reasons  why  a  boy  should  be  consigned  to  the  best  pos¬ 
sible  instructor,  because  even  the  pupils  under  him,  being 
better  taught  than  those  under  inferior  masters,  will  either 
speak  in  such  a  manner  as  it  may  not  be  objectionable  to 
imitate,  or,  if  they  commit  any  faults,  will  be  immediately 
corrected,  whereas  the  less  learned  teacher  will  perhaps 
praise  even  what  is  wrong,  and  cause  it,  by  his  judgment, 
to  recommend  itself  to  those  who  listen  to  it.  12.  Let  a 
master  therefore  be  excellent  as  well  in  eloquence  as  in 
morals;  one  who,  like  Homer’s  Phoenix,1  may  teach  his 
pupil  at  once  to  speak  and  to  act. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

1.  It  is  generally,  and  not  without  reason,  regarded  as 
an  excellent  quality  in  a  master  to  observe  accurately  the 
differences  of  ability  in  those  whom  he  has  undertaken  to 
instruct,  and  to  ascertain  in  what  direction  the  nature  of 
each  particularly  inclines  him  ;  for  there  is  in  talent  an 
incredible  variety;  nor  are  the  forms  of  the  mind  fewer 
than  those  of  the  body.  2.  This  may  be  understood  even 
from  orators  themselves,  who  differ  so  much  from  each 
other  in  their  style  of  speaking,  that  no  one  is  like  another, 
though  most  of  them  have  set  themselves  to  imitate  those 
whom  they  admired.  3.  It  has  also  been  thought  advan¬ 
tageous  by  most  teachers  to  instruct  each  pupil  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  cherish  by  learning  the  good  qualities  inher¬ 
ited  from  nature,  so  that  the  powers  may  be  assisted  in 
their  progress  towards  the  object  to  which  they  chiefly 

1  Iliad,  IX.  432. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  49 1 

direct  themselves.  As  a  master  of  palaestric  exercises, 
when  he  enters  a  gymnasium  full  of  boys,  is  able,  after 
trying  their  strength  and  comprehension  in  every  possible 
way,  to  decide  for  what  kind  of  exercise  each  ought  to  be 
trained  ;  4.  so  a  teacher  of  eloquence,  they  say,  when  he 
has  clearly  observed  which  boy’s  genius  delights  most  m  a 
concise  and  polished  manner  of  speaking,  and  which  in  a 
spirited,  or  grave,  or  smooth,  or  rough,  or  brilliant,  or  ele¬ 
gant  one,  will  so  accommodate  his  instructions  to  each, 
that  he  will  be  advanced  in  that  department  in  which  he 
shows  most  ability  ;  5.  because  nature  attains  far  greater 
power  when  seconded  by  culture ;  and  he  that  is  led  con¬ 
trary  to  nature,  cannot  make  due  progress  in  the  studies 
for  which  he  is  unfit,  and  makes  those  talents,  for  the  exer¬ 
cise  of  which  he  seemed  born,  weaker  by  neglecting  to 

cultivate  them.  .. 

6.  This  opinion  seems  to  me  (for  to  him  that  follows  rea¬ 
son  there  is  free  exercise  of  judgment  even  in  opposition 
to  received  persuasions)  just  only  in  part.  To  distmguis  1 
peculiarities  of  talent  is  absolutely  necessary  ;  and  to  make 
choice  of  particular  studies  to  suit  them,  is  what  no  man 
would  discountenance.  7.  For  one  youth  will  be  fitter  for 
the  study  of  history  than  another  ;  one  will  be  qualified  tor 
writing  poetry,  another  for  the  study  of  law,  and  some 
perhaps  fit  only  to  be  sent  into  the  fields.  The  teacher  o 
rhetoric  will  decide  in  accordance  with  these  peculiarities, 
just  as  the  master  of  the  palcestra  will  make  one  of  his  pupils 
a  runner,  another  a  boxer,  another  a  wrestler,  or  fit  him  tor 
any  other  of  the  exercises  that  are  practised  at  the  sacred 

§  8.  But  he  who  is  destined  for  public  speaking  must 
strive  to  excel,  not  merely  in  one  accomphshment  but  in 
all  the  accomplishments  that  are  requisite  for  that  art,  even 
though  some  of  them  may  seem  too  difficult  for  him  when 
he  is  learning  them  ;  for  instruction  would  be  altogether 
superfluous  if  the  natural  state  of  the  mind  were  sufficient, 
o.  If  a  pupil  that  is  vitiated  in  taste,  and  turgid  in  his 
style,  as  many  are,  is  put  under  our  care,  shall  we  allow 
him  to  go  on  in  his  own  way  ?  Him  that  is  dry  and  je¬ 
june  in  his  manner,  shall  we  not  nourish,  and,  as  it  were, 
clothe  ?  For  if  it  be  necessary  to  prune  something  away 


How  far  this 

individual 

talent  or 

disposition 

should  be 

encouraged 

and 

cultivated. 


The  general 

training 

preferable. 


492  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

from  certain  pupils,  why  should  it  not  be  allowable  to  add 
something  to  others  ?  10.  Yet  I  would  not  fight  against 

nature  ;  for  I  do  not  think  that  any  good  quality,  which  is 
innate,  should  be  detracted,  but  that  whatever  is  inactive  or 
deficient  should  be  invigorated  or  supplied.  11.  Was  that 
famous  teacher  Isocrates,  whose  writings  are  not  stronger 
proofs  that  he  spoke  well,  than  his  scholars  that  he  taught 
well,  inclined,  when  he  formed  such  an  opinion  of  Ephorus  1 
and  Theopompus1  as  to  say  that  “  the  one  wanted  the  rein 
and  the  other  the  spur ,”  to  think  that  the  slowness  in  the 
duller,  and  the  ardour  in  the  more  impetuous,  were  to  be 
fostered  by  education  ?  On  the  contrary,  he  thought  that 
the  qualities  of  each  ought  to  be  mixed  with  those  of  the 
other.  12.  We  must  so  far  accommodate  ourselves,  how¬ 
ever,  to  feeble  intellects,  that  they  may  be  trained  only  to 
that  to  which  nature  invites  them ;  for  thus  they  will  do 
with  more  success  the  only  thing  which  they  can  do.  But 
if  richer  material  fall  into  our  hands,  from  which  we  justly 
conceive  hopes  of  a  true  orator,  no  rhetorical  excellence 
must  be  left  unstudied.  13.  For  though  such  a  genius  be 
more  inclined,  as  indeed  it  must  be,  to  the  exercise  of  cer¬ 
tain  powers,  yet  it  will  not  be  averse  to  that  of  others,  and 
will  render  them,  by  study,  equal  to  those  in  which  it  natu¬ 
rally  excelled ;  just  as  the  skilful  trainer  in  bodily  exercise, 
(that  I  may  adhere  to  my  former  illustration,)  will  not,  if 
he  undertakes  to  form  a  pancratiast,2  teach  him  to  strike 
with  his  fist  or  his  heel  only,  or  instruct  him  merely  in 
wrestling,  or  only  in  certain  artifices  of  wrestling,  but  will 
practise  him  in  everything  pertaining  to  the  pancratiastic 
art. 

There  may  perhaps  be  some  pupil  unequal  to  some  of 
these  exercises.  He  must  then  apply  chiefly  to  that  in 
which  he  can  succeed.  14.  For  two  things  are  especially 
to  be  avoided;  one,  to  attempt  what  cannot  be  accom¬ 
plished  ;  and  the  other,  to  divert  a  pupil  from  what  he 
does  well  to  something  else  for  which  he  is  less  qualified. 

1  Two  Greek  historians  of  the  fourth  century  b.c.  Both  were  pupils  of 
Isocrates. 

2  A  youth  who  trained  for  the  pancratium,  where  the  athletes  contested  in 
wrestling  and  boxing. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  493 

But  if  he  be  capable  of  instruction,  the  tutor,  like  Nicos- 
tratus  1  whom  we,  when  young,  knew  at  an  advanced  age, 
will  bring  to  bear  upon  him  every  art  of  instruction  alike, 
and  render  him  invincible,  as  Nicostratus  was  in  wrestling 
and  boxing,  for  success  in  both  of  which  contests  he  was 
crowned  on  the  same  day.  15.  How  much  more  must 
such  training,  indeed,  be  pursued  by  the  teacher  of  the 
future  orator !  For  it  is  not  enough  that  he  should  speak 
concisely,  or  artfully,  or  vehemently,  any  more  than  for  a 
singing  master  to  excel  in  acute,  or  middle,  or  grave  tones 
onlyv  or  even  in  particular  subdivisions  of  them:  since 
eloquence  is,  like  a  harp,  not  perfect,  unless,  with  all  its 
strings  stretched,  it  be  in  unison  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest  note. 

CHAPTER  IX 

1.  Having  spoken  thus  fully  concerning  the  duties  of 
teachers,  I  give  pupils,  for  the  present,  only  this  one  admo¬ 
nition,  that  they  are  to  love  their  tutors  not  less  than  their 
studies,  and  to  regard  them  as  parents,  not  indeed  of  their 
bodies,  but  of  their  minds.  2.  Such  affection  contributes 
greatly  to  improvement,  for  pupils,  under  its  influence,  will 
not  only  listen  with  pleasure,  but  will  believe  what  is  taught 
them,  and  will  desire  to  resemble  their  instructors.  They 
will  come  together,  in  assembling  for  school,  with  pleasure 
and  cheerfulness ;  they  will  not  be  angry  when  corrected, 
and  will  be  delighted  when  praised ;  and  they  will  strive, 
by  their  devotion  to  study,  to  become  as  dear  as  possible 
to  the  master.  3.  For  as  it  is  the  duty  of  preceptors  to 
teach,  so  it  is  that  of  pupils  to  show  themselves  teachable , 
neither  of  these  duties,  else,  will  be  of.  avail  without  the 
other.  And  as  the  generation  of  man  is  effected  by  both 
parents,  and  as  you  will  in  vain  scatter  seed,  unless  the 
furrowed  ground,  previously  softened,  cherish  it,  so  neither 
can  eloquence  come  to  its  growth  unless  by  mutua 
agreement  between  him  who  communicates  and  him  who 

receives. 

1  A  native  of  Cilicia,  and  renowned  for  his  strength  and  prowess. 


Pupils 
should  re¬ 
gard  their 
instructors 
as 

intellectual 

parents. 


494  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Nature 
contributes 
more  than 
art  in 

students  of 

moderate 

ability. 


In  those  of 
greater 
talent,  art  is 
more 

important. 


Opinions  of 
authorities 
on  subject 
of  rhetoric. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

i.  I  am  aware  that  it  is  also  a  question  whether  nature 
or  learning  contributes  most  to  oratory.  This  inquiry, 
however,  has  no  concern  with  the  subject  of  my  work;  for 
a  perfect  orator  can  be  formed  only  with  the  aid  of  both  ; 
but  I  think  it  of  great  importance  how  far  we  consider  that 
there  is  a  question  on  the  point.  2.  If  you  suppose  either 
to  be  independent  of  the  other,  nature  will  be  able  to  do 
much  without  learning,  but  learning  will  be  of  no  avail 
without  the  assistance  of  nature.  But  if  they  be  united  in 
equal  parts,  I  shall  be  inclined  to  think  that,  when  both  are 
but  moderate,  the  influence  of  nature  is  nevertheless  the 
greater ;  but  finished  orators,  I  consider,  owe  more  to 
learning  than  to  nature.  Thus  the  best  husbandman 
cannot  improve  soil  of  no  fertility,  while  from  fertile 
ground  something  good  will  be  produced  even  without  the 
aid  of  the  husbandman ;  yet  if  the  husbandman  bestows 
his  labour  on  rich  land,  he  will  produce  more  effect  than 
the  goodness  of  the  soil  of  itself.  3.  Had  Praxiteles1 
attempted  to  hew  a  statue  out  of  a  millstone,  I  should 
have  preferred  to  it  an  unhewn  block  of  Parian  2  marble ; 
but  if  that  statuary  had  fashioned  the  marble,  more  value 
would  have  accrued  to  it  from  his  workmanship  than  was 
in  the  marble  itself.  In  a  word,  nature  is  the  material  for 
learning;  the  one  forms,  and  the  other  is  formed.  Art  can 
do  nothing  without  material ;  material  has  its  value  even 
independent  of  art ;  but  perfection  of  art  is  of  more  con¬ 
sequence  than  perfection  of  material. 


CHAPTER  xxi 

1.  As  to  the  material  of  oratory,  some  have  said  that  it 
is  speech ;  an  opinion  which  Gorgias  in  Plato 3  is  repre¬ 
sented  as  holding.  If  this  be  understood  in  such  a  way 
that  a  discourse,  composed  on  any  subject,  is  to  be  termed 

1  One  of  the  most  famous  Greek  sculptors,  who  was  born  at  Athens  about 
390  B.C. 

2  Marble  from  Paros,  an  island  in  the  vEgean  Sea. 

3  Plato,  Gorgias ,  449. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  495 

a  speech ,  it  is  not  the  material,  but  the  work ;  as  the  statue 
is  the  work  of  a  statuary ;  for  speeches,  like  statues,  are 
produced  by  art.  But  if  by  this  term  we  understand  mere 
words,  words  are  of  no  effect  without  matter.  2.  Some 
have  said  that  the  material  of  oratory  is  persuasive  argu¬ 
ments  ;  which  indeed  are  part  of  its  business,  and  are  the 
produce  of  art,  but  require  material  for  their  composition. 
Others  say  that  its  material  is  questions  of  civil  administra¬ 
tion  ;  an  opinion  which  is  wrong,  not  as  to  the  quality  of 
the  matter,  but  in  the  restriction  attached  ;  for  such  ques¬ 
tions  are  the  subject  of  oratory,  but  not  the  only  subject. 
3.  Some,  as  oratory  is  a  virtue ,  say  that  the  subject  of  it  is 
the  whole  of  human  life.  Others,  as  no  part  of  human  life 
is  affected  by  every  virtue,  but  most  virtues  are  concerned 
only  with  particular  portions  of  life,  (as  justice ,  fortitude> 
temperance,  are  regarded  as  confined  to  their  proper  duties 
and  their  own  limits,)  say  that  oratory  is  to  be  restricted  to 
one  special  part,  and  assign  to  it  the  pragmatic  department 
of  ethics,  or  that  which  relates  to  the  transactions  of  civil  life. 

4.  For  my  part,  I  consider,  and  not  without  authorities 
to  support  me,  that  the  material  of  oratory  is  everything  that 
may  come  before  an  orator  for  discussion.  For  Socrates  in 
Plato  1  seems  to  say  to  Gorgias  that  the  matter  of  oratory  is 
not  in  words  but  in  things.  In  the  Phaedrus2  he  plainly 
shows  that  oratory  has  place,  not  only  in  judicial  pro¬ 
ceedings  and  political  deliberations,  but  also  in  private  and 
domestic  matters.  Hence  it  is  manifest  that  this  was  the 
opinion  of  Plato  himself.  5*  Cicero,  too,  in  one  passage,3 
calls  the  material  of  oratory  the  topics  which  are  submitted 
to  it  for  discussion,  but  supposes  that  particular  topics  only 
are  submitted  to  it.  But  in  another  passage 4  he  gives  his 
opinion  that  an  orator  has  to  speak  upon  all  subjects, 
expressing  himself  in  the  following  words :  “  The  art  of 
the  orator,  however,  and  his  very  profession  of  speaking 
well,  seems  to  undertake  and  promise  that  he  will  speak 
elegantly  and  copiously  on  whatever  subject  may  be  pro¬ 
posed  to  him.”  6.  In  a  third  passage,5  also,  he  says: 


1  Plato,  Gorgias,  450-457.  2  Plato,  Phadrus,  261. 

3  Cicero,  De  Oratore ,  I.  15;  De  Invectione,  I.  4. 

4  Cicero,  De  Oratore,  I.  6  6  Cicero,  De  Oratore ,  III.  14. 


That  of 
Quintilian 
agrees  with 
those  of 
Plato  and 
Cicero. 


No  conflict 
between 
rhetoric  and 
philosophy. 


Scope  of 
oratory. 


496  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

“  But  by  an  orator,  whatever  occurs  in  human  life  (since 
it  is  on  human  life  that  an  orator’s  attention  is  to  be  fixed, 
as  the  matter  that  comes  under  his  consideration)  ought 
to  have  been  examined,  heard  of,  read,  discussed,  handled, 
and  managed. 

*  *  *  *  .  *  *  * 

12.  As  to  the  objection  which  some  make,  that  it  is  the 
business  of  philosophy  to  discourse  of  what  is  good,  useful, 
and  just,  it  makes  nothing  against  me ;  for  when  they  say 
a  philosopher,  they  mean  a  good  man;  and  why  then 
should  I  be  surprised  that  an  orator,  whom  I  consider  to 
be  also  a  good  man,  should  discourse  upon  the  same  sub¬ 
jects?  13.  especially  when  I  have  shown,  in  the  preced¬ 
ing  book,  that  philosophers  have  taken  possession  of  this 
province  because  it  was  abandoned  by  the  orators,  a  prov¬ 
ince  which  had  always  belonged  to  oratory,  so  that  the 
philosophers  are  rather  trespassing  upon  our  ground. 
Since  it  is  the  business  of  logic,  too,  to  discuss  whatever 
comes  before  it,  and  logic  is  uncontinuous  oratory,  why  may 
not  the  business  of  continuous  oratory  be  thought  the  same  ? 

14.  It  is  a  remark  constantly  made  by  some,  that  an 
orator  must  be  skilled  in  all  arts  if  he  is  to  speak  upon  all 
subjects.  I  might  reply  to  this  in  the  words  of  Cicero,  in 
whom  I  find  this  passage  : 1  “In  my  opinion  no  man  can 
become  a  thoroughly  accomplished  orator,  unless  he  shall 
have  attained  a  knowledge  of  every  subject  of  importance, 
and  of  all  the  liberal  arts ;  ”  but  for  my  argument  it  is 
sufficient  that  an  orator  be  acquainted  with  the  subject  on 
which  he  has  to  speak.  15.  He  has  not  a  knowledge  of 
all  causes,  and  yet  he  ought  to  be  able  to  speak  upon  all. 
On  what  causes,  then,  will  he  speak  ?  On  such  as  he  has 
learned.  The  same  will  be  the  case  also  with  regard  to 
the  arts  and  sciences ;  those  on  which  he  shall  have  to 
speak  he  will  study  for  the  occasion,  and  on  those  which 
he  has  studied  he  will  speak. 

******* 

18.  Do  subjects  of  this  kind  never  come  to  be  mentioned 
in  panegyrical ,  or  deliberative ,  or  judicial  oratory  ?  When 

1  Cicero,  De  Oratorc>  I.  6. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  497 

it  was  under  deliberation,  whether  a  harbour  should  be 
constructed  at  Ostia,1  were  not  orators  called  to  deliver 
opinions  on  the  subject?  yet  what  was  wanted  was  the 
professional  knowledge  of  the  architect.  19.  Does  not 
the  orator  enter  on  the  question,  whether  discolorations 
and  tumors  of  the  body  are  symptoms  of  ill  health  or  of 
poison  ?  yet  such  inquiries  belong  to  the  profession  of 
medicine  ?  Will  an  orator  never  have  to  speak  of  dimen¬ 
sions  and  numbers  ?  yet  we  may  say  that  such  matters 
belong  to  mathematics ;  for  my  part,  I  believe  that  any 
subject  whatever  may,  by  some  chance,  come  under  the 
cognizance  of  the  orator.  If  a  matter  does  not  come 
under  his  cognizance,  he  will  have  no  concern  with  it. 

20.  Thus  I  have  justly  said,  that  the  material  of  oratory 
is  everything  that  is  brought  under  its  notice  for  discussion , 
an  assertion  which  even  our  daily  conversation  supports, 
for  whenever  we  have  any  subject  on  which  to  speak,  we 
often  signify  by  some  prefatory  remark,  that  the  matter 
is  laid  before  us.  21.  So  much  was  Gorgias2  of  opinion 
that  an  orator  must  speak  of  everything,  that  he  allowed 
himself  to  be  questioned  by  the  people  in  his  lecture-room, 
upon  any  subject  on  which  any  one  of  them  chose  to 
interrogate  him.  Hermagoras3  also,  by  saying,  that  “the 
matter  of  oratory  lies  in  the  cause  and  the  questions  con¬ 
nected  with  it,”  comprehends  under  it  every  subject  that 
can  possibly  come  before  it  for  discussion.  22.  If  indeed 
he  supposed  that  the  questions  do  not  belong  to  oratory, 
he  is  of  a  different  opinion  from  me  ;  but  if  they  do  belong 
to  oratory,  I  am  supported  by  his  authority,  for  there  is 
no  subject  that  may  not  form  part  of  a  cause  or  the  ques¬ 
tions  connected  with  it.  23.  Aristotle,4  too,  by  making 
three  kinds  of  oratory,  the  judicial ,  the  deliberative>  and 
the  demonstrative ,  has  put  almost  everything  into  the 

1  A  city  of  Latium,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  sixteen  miles  from 
Rome. 

2  Plato,  Gorgias ,  474. 

3  A  native  of  Temnos  (about  120  B.C.).  He  introduced  a  most  noteworthy 
system  of  oratory,  which  supplied  the  chief  foundation  for  the  theoretical 
studies  of  the  Romans  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  B.c. 

4  Rhetoricy  I.  3,  3. 


Opinion  of 

Quintilian 

supported 

by  those  of 

other 

authors. 


498  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

hands  of  the  orator,  for  there  is  no  subject  that  may  not 
enter  into  one  of  the  three  kinds. 

24.  An  inquiry  has  been  also  started,  though  by  a  very 
few  writers,  concerning  the  instrument  of  oratory.  The 
instrument  I  call  that  without  which  material  cannot  be 
fashioned  and  adapted  to  the  object  which  we  wish  to  effect . 
But  I  consider  that  it  is  not  the  art  that  requires  the 
instrument,  but  the  artificer.  Professional  knowledge 
needs  no  tool,  as  it  may  be  complete  though  it  produces 
nothing,  but  the  artist  must  have  his  tool,  as  the  engraver 
his  graving-instrument,  and  the  painter  his  pencils.  I 
shall  therefore  reserve  the  consideration  of  this  point  for 
that  part  of  my  work  in  which  I  intend  to  speak  of  the 
orator . 


BOOK  XII.,  CHAPTER  I 


Oratory  as 
the  aim  of 
education. 

Moral 
qualities  of 
the  edu¬ 
cated  man. 


I.  Let  the  orator,  then,  whom  I  propose  to  form,  be 
such  a  one  as  is  characterized  by  the  definition  of  Marcus 
Cato,1  a  good  man  skilled  in  speaking ,2 

But  the  requisite  which  Cato  has  placed  first  in  this 
definition,  that  an  orator  should  be  a  good  man ,  is  naturally 
of  more  estimation  and  importance  than  the  other.  It  is 
of  importance  that  an  orator  should  be  good,  because, 
should  the  power  of  speaking  be  a  support  to  evil,  nothing 
would  be  more  pernicious  than  eloquence  alike  to  public 
concerns  and  private,  and  I  myself,  who,  as  far  as  is  in 
my  power,  strive  to  contribute  something  to  the  faculty  of 
the  orator,  should  deserve  very  ill  of  the  world,  since  I 
should  furnish  arms,  not  for  soldiers,  but  for  robbers. 
2.  May  I  not  draw  an  argument  from  the  condition  of 
mankind  ?  Nature  herself,  in  bestowing  on  man  that 
which  she  seems  to  have  granted  him  preeminently,  and 
by  which  she  appears  to  have  distinguished  us  from  all 
other  animals,  would  have  acted,  not  as  a  parent,  but  as  a 
step-mother,  if  she  had  designed  the  faculty  of  speech  to 
be  the  promoter  of  crime,  the  oppressor  of  innocence,  and 
the  enemy  of  truth ;  for  it  would  have  been  better  for  us 


1  Cato,  the  Censor,  born  234  B.c. 

2  Given  in  his  De  Oratore ,  as  appears  from  the  reference  made  by  Seneca 
and  by  Cicero. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  499 

to  have  been  born  dumb,  and  to  have  been  left  destitute  of 
reasoning  powers,  than  to  have  received  endowments  from 
providence  only  to  turn  them  to  the  destruction  of  one 
another. 

3.  My  judgment  carries  me  still  further;  for  I  not  only 
say  that  he  who  would  answer  my  idea  of  an  orator,  must 
be  a  good  man,  but  that  no  man,  unless  he  be  good,  can 
ever  be  an  orator.  To  an  orator  discernment  and  pru¬ 
dence  are  necessary ;  but  we  can  certainly  not  allow  dis¬ 
cernment  to  those,  who,  when  the  ways  of  virtue  and  vice 
are  set  before  them,  prefer  to  follow  that  of  vice ;  nor  can 
we  allow  them  prudence,  since  they  subject  themselves,  by 
the  unforseen  consequences  of  their  actions,  often  to  the 
heaviest  penalty  of  the  law,  and  always  to  that  of  an  evil 
conscience.  4.  But  if  it  be  not  only  truly  said  by  the  wise, 
but  always  justly  believed  by  the  vulgar,  that  no  man  is 
vicious  who  is  not  also  foolish,  a  fool,  assuredly,  will  never 

become  an  orator.  . 

It  is  to  be  further  considered  that  the  mind  cannot  be  in 
a  condition  for  pursuing  the  most  noble  of  studies,  unless 
it  be  entirely  free  from  vice ;  not  only  because  there  can 
be  no  communion  of  good  and  evil  in  the  same  breast,  and 
to  meditate  at  once  on  the  best  things  and  the  worst  is  no 
more  in  the  power  of  the  same  mind  than  it  is  possible  for 
the  same  man  to  be  at  once  virtuous  and  vicious ,  5*  but 
also,  because  a  mind  intent  on  so  arduous  a  study  should 
be  exempt  from  all  other  cares,  even  such  as  are  uncon¬ 
nected  with  vice ;  for  then,  and  then  only,  when  it  is  free 
and  master  of  itself,  and  when  no  other  object  harasses 
and  distracts  its  attention,  will  it  be  able  to  keep  in  view 
the  end  to  which  it  is  devoted.  6.  But  if  an  inordinate  at¬ 
tention  to  an  estate,  a  too  anxious  pursuit  of  wealth,  indul¬ 
gence  in  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  and  the  devotion  of 
our  days  to  public  spectacles,  rob  our  studies  of  much  of 
our  time,  (for  whatever  time  is  given  to  one  thing  is  lost 
to  another,)  what  effect  must  we  suppose  that  ambition, 
avarice,  and  envy  will  produce,  whose  excitements  are  so 
violent' as  even  to  disturb  our  sleep  and  our  dreams? 
7.  Nothing  indeed  is  so  pre-occupied,  so  unsettled,  so  torn 
and  lacerated  with  such  numerous  and  various  passions,  as 
a  bad  mind  ;  for  when  it  intends  evil,  it  is  agitated  with 


Why  a 
bad  man 
cannot  be 
successful 
orator. 


500  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Objections 
to  this 
opinion 
answered. 


hope,  care,  and  anxiety,  and  when  it  has  attained  the  ob¬ 
ject  of  its  wickedness,  it  is  tormented  with  uneasiness,  re¬ 
pentance,  and  the  dread  of  every  kind  of  punishment. 
Among  such  disquietudes,  what  place  is  there  for  study, 
or  any  rational  pursuit?  No  more  certainly  than  there  is 
for  corn  in  a  field  overrun  with  thorns  and  brambles. 

8.  To  enable  us  to  sustain  the  toil  of  study,  is  not  tem¬ 
perance  necessary  ?  What  expectations  are  to  be  formed, 
then,  from  him  who  is  abandoned  to  licentiousness  and 
luxury  ?  Is  not  the  love  of  praise  one  of  the  greatest  in¬ 
citements  to  the  pursuit  of  literature  ?  But  can  we  suppose 
that  the  love  of  praise  is  an  object  of  regard  with  the  un¬ 
principled  ?  Who  does  not  know  that  a  principal  part  of 
oratory  consists  in  discoursing  on  justice  and  virtue  ?  But 
will  the  unjust  man  and  the  vicious  treat  of  such  subjects 
with  the  respect  that  is  due  to  them  ? 

9.  But  though  we  should  even  concede  a  great  part  of 
the  question,  and  grant,  what  can  by  no  means  be  the  case, 
that  there  is  the  same  portion  of  ability,  diligence,  and 
attainments,  in  the  worst  man  as  in  the  best,  which  of  the 
two,  even  under  that  supposition,  will  prove  the  better  ora¬ 
tor?  He,  doubtless,  who  is  the  better  man.  The  same 
person,  therefore,  can  never  be  a  bad  man  and  a  perfect 
orator,  for  that  cannot  be  perfect  to  which  something  else 
is  superior. 

10.  That  I  may  not  seem,  however,  like  the  writers  of 
Socratic  dialogues,  to  frame  answers  to  suit  my  own  pur¬ 
pose,  let  us  admit  that  there  exists  a  person  so  unmoved 
by  the  force  of  truth,  as  boldly  to  maintain  that  a  bad  man, 
possessed  of  the  same  portion  of  ability,  application,  and 
learning,  as  a  good  man,  will  be  an  equally  good  orator, 
and  let  us  convince  even  such  a  person  of  his  folly. 

11.  No  man,  certainly,  will  doubt,  that  it  is  the  object  of 
all  oratory,  that  what  is  stated  to  the  judge  may  appear  to 
him  to  be  true  and  just ;  and  which  of  the  two,  let  me  ask, 
will  produce  such  a  conviction  with  the  greater  ease,  the 
good  man  or  the  bad?  12.  A  good  man,  doubtless,  will 
speak  of  what  is  true  and  honest  with  greater  frequency  ; 
but  even  if,  from  being  influenced  by  some  call  of  duty,  he 
endeavours  to  support  what  is  fallacious,  (a  case  which,  as  I 
shall  show,  may  sometimes  occur,)  he  must  still  be  heard 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  50* 


with  greater  credit  than  a  bad  man.  13*  But  with  bad 
men,  on  the  other  hand,  dissimulation  sometimes  fails,  as 
well  through  their  contempt  for  the  opinion  of  mankind, 
as  through  their  ignorance  of  what  is  right;  hence  they 
assert  without  modesty,  and  maintain  their  assertions  with¬ 
out  shame ;  and,  in  attempting  what  evidently  cannot  be 
accomplished,  there  appears  in  them  a  repulsive  obstinacy 
and  useless  perseverance  ;  for  bad  men,  as  well  in  their 
pleadings  as  in  their  lives,  entertain  dishonest  expectations  , 
and  it  often  happens,  that  even  when  they  speak  the  truth, 
belief  is  not  accorded  them,  and  the  employment  of  advo¬ 
cates  of  such  a  character  is  regarded  as  a  proof  of  the  bad¬ 
ness  of  a  cause. 

*  *  *  *  *  *  * 


23.  Let  us  grant,  however,  what  nature  herself  by  no 
means  brings  to  pass,  that  a  bad  man  has  been  found  en¬ 
dowed  with  consummate  eloquence,  I  should  nevertheless 
refuse  to  concede  to  him  the  name  of  orator,  as  I  should 
not  allow  the  merit  of  fortitude  to  all  who  have  been  active 
in  the  field,  because  fortitude  cannot  be  conceived  as  un¬ 
accompanied  with  virtue.  24.  Has  not  he  who  is  employed 
to  defend  causes  need  of  integrity  which  covetousness  can¬ 
not  pervert,  or  partiality  corrupt,  or  terror  abash,  and  shall 
we  honour  the  traitor,  the  renegade,  the  prevaricator,  with 
the  sacred  name  of  orator  ?  And  if  that  quality,  which  is 
commonly  called  goodness ,  is  found  even  m  moderate 
pleaders,  why  should  not  that  great  orator,  who  has  not 
yet  appeared,  but  who  may  hereafter  appear,  be  as  consum¬ 
mate  in  goodness  as  in  eloquence  ?  25.  It  is  not  a  plodder 
in  the  forum,  or  a  mercenary  pleader,  or,  to  use  no  stronger 
term,  a  not  unprofitable  advocate,  (such  as  he  whom  they 
generally  term  a  causidicus ,)  that  I  desire  to  form,  but  a 
man  who,  being  possessed  of  the  highest  natural  genius, 
stores  his  mind  thoroughly  with  the  most  valuable  kinds 
of  knowledge ;  a  man  sent  by  the  gods  to  do  honour  to  t  e 
world,  and  such  as  no  preceding  age  has  known  ;  a  man 
in  every  way  eminent  and  excellent,  a  thinker  of  the  best 
thoughts  and  a  speaker  of  the  best  language.  26..  For  sue 
a  man’s  ability  how  small  a  scope  will  there  be  m  the  de¬ 
fence  of  innocence  or  the  repression  of  guilt  in  the  forum, 
or  in  supporting  truth  against  falsehood  in  litigations  about 


A  bad  man 
may 


speak  with 
great  force, 
but  does  not 
approach  to 
perfect 
eloquence. 


502  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

money  ?  He  will  appear  great,  indeed,  even  in  such  in¬ 
ferior  employments,  but  his  powers  will  shine  with  the  high¬ 
est  lustre  on  greater  occasions,  when  the  counsels  of  the 
senate  are  to  be  directed,  and  the  people  to  be  guided  from 
error  into  rectitude.  27.  Is  it  not  such  an  orator  that  Vir¬ 
gil  appears  to  have  imagined,  representing  him  as  a  calmer 
of  the  populace  in  a  sedition,  when  they  were  hurling  fire¬ 
brands  and  stones  ? 

Then  if  perchance  a  sage  they  see,  rever’d 
For  piety  and  worth,  they  hush  their  noise, 

And  stand  with  ears  attentive.1 

We  see  that  he  first  makes  him  a  good  man,  and  then  adds 
that  he  is  skilled  in  speaking : 

With  words 

He  rules  their  passions  and  their  breasts  controls. 

28.  Would  not  the  orator  whom  I  am  trying  to  form,  too, 
if  he  were  in  the  field  of  battle,  and  his  soldiers  required 
to  be  encouraged  to  engage,  draw  the  materials  for  an  ex¬ 
hortation  from  the  most  profound  precepts  of  philosophy  ? 
for  how  could  all  the  terrors  of  toil,  pain,  and  even  death, 
be  banished  from  their  breasts,  unless  vivid  feelings  of 
piety,  fortitude,  and  honour,  be  substituted  in  their  place  ? 
29.  He,  doubtless,  will  best  implant  such  feelings  in  the 
breasts  of  others  who  has  first  implanted  them  in  his  own ; 
for  simulation,  however  guarded  it  be,  always  betrays  itself, 
nor  was  there  ever  such  power  of  eloquence  in  any  man 
that  he  would  not  falter  and  hesitate  whenever  his  words 
were  at  variance  with  his  thoughts.  30.  But  a  bad  man 
must  of  necessity  utter  words  at  variance  with  his  thoughts  ; 
while  to  good  men,  on  the  contrary,  a  virtuous  sincerity  of 
language  will  never  be  wanting,  nor  (for  good  men  will 
also  be  wise)  a  power  of  producing  the  most  excellent 
thoughts,  which,  though  they  may  be  destitute  of  showy 
charms,  will  be  sufficiently  adorned  by  their  own  natural 
qualities,  since  whatever  is  said  with  honest  feeling  will 
also  be  said  with  eloquence. 

****** 

*  1  sEneid,  I.  148. 


* 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  503 


CHAPTER  II 


I  Since  an  orator,  then,  is  a  good  man,  and  a  good  man 
cannot  be  conceived  to  exist  without  virtuous  inclinations, 
and  virtue,  though  it  receives  certain  impulses  from  nature, 
requires  notwithstanding  to  be  brought  to  maturity  by  in¬ 
struction,  the  orator  must  above  all  things  study  morality , 
and  must  obtain  a  thorough  knowledge  of  all  that  is  just 
and  honourable,  without  which  no  one  can  either  be  a  good, 
man  or  an  able  speaker.  2.  Unless,  indeed,  we  feel  in¬ 
clined  to  adopt  the  opinion  of  those  who  think  that  the 
moral  character  is  formed  by  nature,  and  is  not  at  all  influ¬ 
enced  by  discipline ;  and  who  forsooth,  acknowledge  that 
manual  operations,  and  even  the  meanest  of  them,  cannot 
be  acquired  without  the  aid  of  teachers,  but  say  that  we 
possess  virtue,  (than  which  nothing  has  been  given  to  man 
that  raises  him  nearer  to  the  immortal  gods,)  unsought  and 
without  labour,  simply  because  we  are  born  what  we  are. 
r  But  will  that  man  be  temperate,  who  does  not  know 
even  what  temperance  is  ?  Or  will  that  man  be  possessed 
of  fortitude,  who  has  used  no  means  to  free  his  mind  from 
the  terrors  of  pain,  death,  and  superstition  ?  Or  will  that 
man  be  just,  who  has  entered  into  no  examination  of  what 
is  equitable  and  good,  and  who  has  never  ascertained  from 
any  dissertation  of  the  least  learning,  the  principles  either 
of  the  laws  which  are  by  nature  prescribed  to  all  men,  or 
of  those  which  are  instituted  among  particular  people  and 
nations  ?  Of  how  little  consequence  do  they  think  all  this, 
to  whom  it  appears  so  easy!  4-  But  I  shall  say  n0  more 
on  this  point,  on  which  I  think  that  no  man,  who  has  tasted 
of  learning ,  as  they  say,  with  but  the  slightest  touch  of  ns 

lifts,  will  entertain  the  least  doubt. 

I  pass  on  to  my  second  proposition,  that  no  man  will 

ever  be  thoroughly  accomplished  in  eloquence,  who  has 
not  gained  a  deep  insight  into  the  impulses  of  human 
nature,  and  formed  his  moral  character  on  the  precepts 

of  others  and  on  his  own  reflection. .  5-  Xt  wlth^ 

reason  that  Lucius  Crassus,  in  the  third  book  De  Oratore, 
asserts  that  everything  that  can  come  under  discussion  re- 

i  Cicero’s  De  Oratore .  Lucius  Licinius  Crassus,  a  leading  orator  of  his 
times,  was  one  of  the  characters  in  the  dialogue. 


Orator  must 
study  to 
maintain  a 
high  moral 
character. 


Education 
must  reen¬ 
force  nature 
in  tenden¬ 
cies  to 
virtue. 


504  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

specting  equity,  justice,  truth,  goodness,  and  whatever  is  of 
an  opposite  nature,  are  the  proper  concerns  of  the  orator ; 
and  that  the  philosophers,  when  they  inculcate  those  vir¬ 
tues  with  the  force  of  eloquence,  use  the  arms  of  the  orator 
and  not  their  own.  Yet  he  admits  that  the  knowledge  of 
these  subjects  must  now  be  sought  from  philosophy,  because 
philosophy,  apparently,  seems  to  him  to  be  more  fully  in 
possession  of  them.  6.  Hence  also  it  is  that  Cicero  remarks, 
in  many  passages  both  of  his  books  and  of  his  letters,  that 
the  power  of  eloquence  is  to  be  derived  from  the  deepest 
sources  of  wisdom,  and  that  accordingly  the  same  persons 
were  for  a  considerable  time  the  teachers  at  once  of  elo¬ 
quence  and  of  morality. 

This  exhortation  of  mine,  however,  is  not  designed  to 
intimate  that  I  should  wish  the  orator  to  be  a  philosopher, 
since  no  other  mode  of  life  has  withdrawn  itself  further 
from  the  duties  of  civil  society,  and  all  that  concerns  the 
orator.  7.  Which  of  the  philosophers,  indeed,  ever  fre¬ 
quented  courts  of  justice,  or  distinguished  himself  in  public 
assemblies  ?  Which  of  them  ever  engaged  even  in  the 
management  of  political  affairs,  on  which  most  of  them 
have  given  such  earnest  precepts  ?  But  I  should  desire 
the  orator,  whom  I  am  trying  to  form,  to  be  a  kind  of 
Roman  wise  man ,  who  may  prove  himself  a  true  states¬ 
man,  not  by  discussions  in  retirement,  but  by  personal 
experience  and  exertions  in  public  life.  8.  But  because 
the  pursuits  of  philosophy  have  been  deserted  by  those 
who  have  devoted  their  minds  to  eloquence,  and  because 
they  no  longer  display  themselves  in  their  proper  field  of 
action,  and  in  the  open  light  of  the  forum,  but  have  re¬ 
treated,  at  first  into  the  porticoes  and  gymnasia,  and  since 
into  the  assemblies  of  the  schools,  the  orator  must  seek 
that  which  is  necessary  for  him,  and  which  is  not  taught 
by  the  masters  of  eloquence,  among  those  with  whom  it 
has  remained,  by  perusing  with  the  most  diligent  appli¬ 
cation  the  authors  that  give  instruction  in  virtue,  that  his 
life  may  be  in  conformity  with  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
divine  and  human  things ;  and  how  much  more  important 
and  noble  would  these  things  appear,  if  those  were  to  teach 
them  who  could  discourse  on  them  with  the  highest  elo¬ 
quence  ?  9.  Would  that  there  may  some  day  come  a  time, 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  505 

when  some  orator,  perfect  as  we  wish  him  to  be,  may  vin¬ 
dicate  to  himself  the  study  of  philosophy,  (which  has  been 
rendered  odious  as  well  by  the  arrogant  assumptions,  as 
rtie  vices,  of  those  who  have  disgraced  its  excellent 
nature,)  and,  by  a  re-conquest  as  it  were,  annex  it  again 

to  the  domain  of  eloquence  !  . 

10.  As  philosophy  is  divided  into  three  parts,  physics,  Dmsiom  of 

ethics ,  and  dialectics,  by  which  of  the  three  is  it  not  allied  P  1  osoP  y- 

with  the  business  of  the  orator?  _ 

To  consider  them  in  the  order  contrary  to  that  in  which 
I  have  named  them,  no  man  can  surely  doubt  whether  the 
last,  which  is  wholly  employed  about  words,  concerns  the 
orator,  if  it  be  his  business  to  know  the  exact  significations 
of  terms,  to  clear  ambiguities,  to  disentangle  perplexities, 
to  distinguish  falsehood  from  truth,  and  to  establish  or 
refute  what  he  may  desire;  u.  though,  indeed,  we  shall  Dialectics, 
not  have  to  use  these  arts  with  such  exactness  and  precise¬ 
ness  in  pleadings  in  the  forum,  as  is  observed  in  the  dispu¬ 
tations  of  the  schools ;  because  the  orator  must  not  on  y 
instruct  his  audience,  but  must  move  and  delight  them,  and 
to  effect  that  object  there  is  need  of  energy,  animation, 
and  grace ;  the  difference  between  the  orator  and  the  dia¬ 
lectician  being  as  great  as  that  in  the  courses  of  rivers  of 
an  opposite  character  ;  for  the  force  of  streams  that  flow 
between  high  banks,  and  with  a  full  flood,  is  far  greater 
than  that  of  shallow  brooks,  with  water  struggling  against 
the  obstructions  of  pebbles.  12.  And  as  the  teachers  o 
wrestling  do  not  instruct  their  pupils  in  all  the  attitudes, 
as  they  call  them,  that  they  may  use  all  that  they  have 
learned  in  an  actual  struggle  with  an  adversary,  (for  more 
may  be  effected  by  weight,  and  firmness,  and  ardour,)  but 
that  they  may  have  a  large  number  of  artifices,  of  w  ic 
they  may  adopt  one  or  other  as  occasion  may  require, 

1 3.  so  the  art  of  logic,  or  of  disputation,  if  we  had  rather  g  v 
it  that  name,  though  it  is  often  of  the  greatest  use  in  de  - 
nitions  and  deductions,  in  marking  differences  and  in  ex¬ 
plaining  ambiguities,  in  distinguishing  and  dividing,  m 
perplexing  and  entangling,  yet,  if  it  assumes  to  itself  t 
whole  conduct  of  a  cause  in  the  forum,  will  prove  but  a 
hindrance  to  what  is  better  than  itself,  and  will  waste,  y 
its  very  subtilty,  the  strength  that  is  divided  to  suit  its 


Ethics. 


506  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 

niceties.  14.  We  may  accordingly  see  that  some  people, 
extremely  acute  in  disputations,  are,  when  they  are  drawn 
beyond  the  sphere  of  cavilling,  no  more  able  to  support 
any  important  exertion  of  eloquence,  than  certain  little 
animals,  which  are  active  enough  to  escape  being  caught 
in  a  small  space,  can  prevent  themselves  from  being  seized 
in  an  open  field. 

15.  As  to  that  part  of  philosophy  which  is  called  moral , 
the  study  of  it  is  certainly  wholly  suited  to  the  orator ;  for 
in  such  a  variety  of  causes,  (as  I  have  remarked  in  the  pre¬ 
ceding  books,)  in  which  some  points  are  ascertained  by 
conjecture,  others  are  settled  by  definition,  others  are  set 
aside  by  the  law,  others  fall  under  the  state  of  exception, 
others  are  determined  by  syllogism,  others  depend  on  a 
comparison  of  different  laws,  others  on  explanations  of 
ambiguous  terms,  scarcely  a  single  cause  can  occur  in  some 
part  of  which  considerations  of  equity  and  morality  are  not 
concerned.  Who  does  not  know,  also,  that  there  are 
numbers  of  cases  which  depend  entirely  on  the  estimation 
of  the  quality  of  an  act,  a  question  purely  moral  ?  16.  In 

deliberative  oratory,  also,  what  means  would  there  be  of  ex¬ 
hortation  .  unconnected  with  questions  of  honesty  ?  As 
to  the  third  kind  of  oratory,  too,  which  consists  in  the 
duties  of  praising  and  censuring,  what  shall  be  said  of  it  ? 
It  is  assuredly  engaged  about  considerations  of  right  and 
wrong.  1 7.  Will  not  an  orator  have  to  speak  much  of 
justice,  fortitude,  abstinence,  temperance,  piety  ?  Yet  the 
good  man,  who  has  a  knowledge  of  these  virtues,  not  by 
sound  and  name  only,  not  as  heard  merely  by  the  ear  to  be 
repeated  by  the  tongue,  but  who  has  embraced  them  in  his 
heart,  and  thinks  in  conformity  with  them,  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  conceiving  proper  notions  about  them,  and  will 
express  sincerely  what  he  thinks. 

l8;  Again,  as  every  general  question  is  more  compre¬ 
hensive  than  a  particular  one,  as  a  part  is  contained  in  the 
whole  while  the  whole  is  not  included  in  a  part,  no  one 
will  doubt  that  general  questions  are  intimately  connected 
with  that  kind  of  studies  of  which  we  are  speaking. 
19*  As  there  are  many  points  also  which  require  to  be 
settled  by  appropriate  and  brief  definitions,  whence  one 
state  of  causes  is  called  the  definitive ,  ought  not  the  orator 


Scientific  Exposition  ofi  Romaii  Education  507 

to  be  prepared  for  giving  such  definitions  by  those  who 
have  given  most  attention  to  that  department  of  study? 

Does  not  every  question  of  equity  depend  either  on  an 
exact  determination  of  the  sense  of  words,  or  on  the  con¬ 
sideration  of  what  is  right,  or  on  conjecture  respecting  the 
intention  of  the  author  of  something  written?  and  of  all 
such  questions  part  will  rest  on  logical  and  part  on  ethical 
science.  20.  All  oratory,  therefore,  naturally  partakes  of 
these  two  departments  of  philosophy  :  I  mean  all  oratory 
that  truly  deserves  the  name;  for  mere  loquacity,  which 
is  ignorant  of  all  such  learning,  must  necessarily  go  astray, 
as  having  either  no  guides,  or  guides  that  are  deceitful. 

But  the  department  of  natural  philosophy,  besides  that  Natural 
it  affords  so  much  wider  a  field  for  exercise  in  speaking  P  1  osoP  y< 
than  other  subjects,  inasmuch  as  we  must  treat  of  divine 
in  a  more  elevated  style  than  of  human  things,  embraces 
also  the  whole  of  moral  science,  without  which,  as  I  have 
just  shown,  there  can  be  no  real  oratory.  21.  For  if  the 
world  is  governed  by  a  providence,  the  state  ought  surely 
to  be  ruled  by  the  superintendence  of  good  men.  If  our 
souls  are  of  divine  origin,  we  ought  to  devote  ourselves  to 
virtue,  and  not  to  be  slaves  to  a  body  of  terrestrial  mature. 

Will  not  the  orator  frequently  have  to  treat  of  such  sub¬ 
jects  as  these?  Will  he  not  have  to  speak  of  auguries 
oracles,  and  of  everything  pertaining  to  religion,  on  which 
the  most  important  deliberations  in  the  senate  often  depend, 
at  least  if  he  is  to  be,  as  I  think  that  he  ought  to  be,  a 
well  qualified  statesman?  What  sort  of  eloquence  can  be 
imagined,  indeed,  to  proceed  from  a  man  who  is  ignorant 
of  the  noblest  subjects  of  human  contemplation. 

***** 

27*  But  an  orator  has  no  need  to  bind  himself  to  the  Theater 

laws  of  any  particular  sect;  for  the  office  ally  himself 

devotes  himself,  and  for  which  he  is  as  it  were  a  candidate,  th  any 
is  of  a  loftier  and  better  nature,  since  sect, 

guished  as  well  by  excellence  of  moral  conduct  as _by 
in  eloquence.  He  will  accordingly  seley  f  •  his 
quent  orators  for  imitation  in  oratory,  an  e  :>ts 

moral  character  will  fix  upon  the  most  ^nourableprecep 
and  the  most  direct  road  to  virtue.  28.  He  will  indeed 


508  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education 


Should  learn 
the  good 
of  all. 


exercise  himself  on  all  subjects,  but  he  will  attach  himself 
most  to  those  of  the  highest  and  noblest  nature ;  for  what 
more  fertile  subjects  can  be  found,  indeed,  for  grave  and 
copious  eloquence,  than  dissertations  on  virtue,  on  govern¬ 
ment,  on  providence,  on  the  origin  of  the  human  mind, 
and  on  friendship  ?  These  are  the  topics  by  which  the 
mind  and  the  language  are  alike  elevated ;  what  is  really 
good  ;  what  allays  fear ,  restrains  cupidity,  frees  us  from  the 
prejudices  of  the  vulgar ,  and  raises  the  mind  towards  the 
heaven  from  which  it  sprung. 

29.  Nor  will  it  be  proper  to  understand  those  matters 
only  which  are  comprehended  in  the  sciences  of  which  I 
have  been  speaking,  but  still  more  to  know,  and  to  bear 
continually  in  mind,  the  noble  deeds  and  sayings  which 
are  recorded  of  the  great  men  of  antiquity,  and  which 
certainly  are  nowhere  found  in  greater  number  or  excel¬ 
lence  than  in  the  annals  of  our  own  commonwealth. 
30.  Will  men  of  any  other  nation  give  better  lessons  of 
fortitude,  justice,  honour,  temperance,  frugality,  contempt 
of  pain  and  death,  than  a  Fabricius,1  a  Curius,2  a  Regulus,3 
a  Decius,4  a  Mucius,5  and  others  without  number  ?  for 
highly  as  the  Greeks  abound  in  precepts,  the  Romans, 
what  is  of  far  more  importance,  abound  quite  as  much  as 
in  examples;  31.  and  that  man  will  feel  himself  in  a 
manner  impelled  by  the  biography  of  his  country  to  a 
similar  course  of  conduct,  who  does  not  think  it  sufficient 

1  Roman  consul,  first  in  283  B.C.,  again  in  279.  Refused  bribe  from 
Pyrrhus.  Later  returned  in  chains  the  ambassador  of  Pyrrhus,  who  offered  to 
poison  his  master. 

2  Roman  consul,  first  in  290  B.c.  Noted  for  his  simplicity  of  life. 

3  Roman  consul  made  prisoner  by  the  Carthaginians,  255  B.C.  When 
returned  to  Rome  on  an  embassy  to  make  peace,  he  advised  against  it,  and 
returned  as  a  prisoner  to  Carthage,  to  a  martyr’s  death. 

4  A  Roman  consul  who  gave  his  life  for  the  safety  of  his  country  in  the 
war  against  the  Latins,  337  b.c. 

5  Mucius  Scsevola  entered  the  enemy’s  camp  for  the  purpose  of  killing 
King  Porsena,  but  by  mistake  killed  the  king’s  secretary.  On  being  brought 
to  execution  by  fire,  he  placed  his  right  hand  in  the  flame  until  consumed. 
The  king  ordered  him  released  on  account  of  his  bravery.  Mucius  then 
informed  Porsena  of  the  purpose  of  three  hundred  youths  to  attempt  his 
death.  This  so  terrified  the  king  that  he  withdrew. 


Scientific  Exposition  of  Roman  Education  509 

to  regard  merely  the  present  age,  and  the  passing  day, 
but  considers  that  any  honourable  remembrance  among 
posterity  is  but  the  just  sequel  to  a  life  of  virtue,  and  the 
completion  of  a  career  of  merit.  From  this  source  let  the 
orator  whom  I  would  form  derive  strong  encouragements 
to  the  observance  of  justice,  and  let  him  show  a  sense  of 
liberty  drawn  from  hence  in  his  pleadings  in  the  forum 
and  in  his  addresses  to  the  senate.  Nor  will  he  indeed 
ever  be  a  consummate  orator  who  has  not  both  knowledge 
and  boldness  to  speak  with  sincerity.  .  .  . 


INDEX 


Accius,  471. 

/Emilius  Paulus,  478. 

^Eschylus,  142,  147. 

Agis,  18. 

Aglauros,  33. 

Agricola,  Cnaeus  Julius,  372,  376. 

Aleman,  23. 

Alexander,  453,  456. 

Alexander,  the  grammarian,  380. 

Amazons,  244,  402. 

Anaxagoras,  106. 

Andronicus,  Livius,  347,  349,  355,  398. 

Antidosis,  96. 

Antisthenes,  298. 

Antoninus  Pius,  372,  381. 

Antonius  Marcus,  423. 

Apollonius,  379. 

Archimedes,  478. 

Archytas,  320. 

Ares,  33. 

Aristarchus,  350. 

Aristippus,  311. 

Aristophanes,  the  grammarian,  454. 

Aristophanes,  54  ff. ;  treatment  of  Soph¬ 
ists,  56,  63,  68  ff. ;  the  Clouds ,  66  ff., 
320 ;  “  old ”  and  “new ”  education,  80 ff. 

Aristotle,  265  ff.,  431,  433,  4561  and 
Plato,  265;  the  Politics ,  268,  272  ff. ; 
ideas  on  government,  269;  child  edu¬ 
cation,  270;  and  Lyceum,  298. 

Aristoxenus,  474. 

Arithmetic,  value  of,  200;  when  to  be 
taught,  216;  extent  and  method,  258. 

Asinius,  470. 

Astronomy,  practical  value,  206;  theo¬ 
retical  value,  208,  477  ;  study  of,  260. 

Athenian  Education,  its  nature,  n ;  im¬ 
portance,  25. 

Athens,  government  of,  25 ;  free  scope 
for  individual,  27 ;  new  education, 
295 ;  University  of,  295,  300,  305 ;  de¬ 
cree  of  Senate,  302  ;  decree  of  Assem¬ 
bly,  304. 

5 


Athletics,  overdoing  of,  285. 

Atia,  362. 

Atticus,  T.  Pomponius,  371,  375. 

Augustus  Caesar,  362,  375. 

Aurelia,  362. 

Aurelius  Marcus,  371  ff.,  377  ff. 

Auxo,  33. 

Basil,  Saint,  296  ff.,  305  ff. 

Books,  415,  468. 

Buildings,  for  schools,  242 ;  for  libraries, 
407. 

Caecilius,  471. 

Caesar,  Julius,  362. 

Carneades,  431. 

Carrinas,  Secundus,  419. 

Carvilius,  Spurius,  347,  355. 

Cato,  Marcus,  329,  498. 

Cato,  Valerius,  351. 

Catulus,  380. 

Chaerephon,  67. 

Child  Education,  in  Sparta,  15  ff. ;  idea 
of  Protagoras,  31 ;  in  Persia,  123 ;  how 
made  harmful,  143;  importance  of, 
169,  451;  age  for  teaching  216,  454; 
element  of  play,  217,  234,  279;  how 
prepared,  229  ;  early  training,  231,  308, 
397,  451,  455,  488;  difficulties,  247; 
ideas  of  Aristotle,  270,  279;  at  home, 
280, 376, 451 ;  Roman  ideals,  362 ;  char¬ 
acter  of,  398,  451 ;  part  of  poetry,  398 ; 
curriculum,  456. 

Chiron,  476. 

Christianity,  301,  328. 

Chrysippus,  431,  451,  454,  466. 

Chrysogonus,  417. 

Cicero,  333,  345.  353.  358,  421  ff.;  De 
Oratore,  428  ff. ;  aim  of  education,  428  ; 
defines  oratory,  433;  on  philosophy, 
437;  idea  of  good  speaker,  439;  de¬ 
scription  of  his  own  life,  440. 

Cornelia,  362. 

II 


512 


Index 


Correlia  Hispulla,  394,  410. 

Cotta,  C.  Amelius,  423. 

Crassus,  L.  Licinius,  423,  503. 

Crates,  348,  350. 

Cryptia,  22. 

Curius,  508. 

Cyrus,  122  ff. 

Damon,  106. 

Dancing,  part  of  education,  223  ff. ;  rules 
for,  252 ;  various  kinds,  254. 

Decius,  508. 

Demetrius,  312. 

Democritus,  319,  431. 

Demosthenes,  313,  422,  433,  438. 

Dialectics,  end  of  science,  211;  nature 
and  divisions,  212;  education  for  phi¬ 
losophers,  214,  505 ;  time  to  be  studied, 
217  ff. 

Diodorus,  363. 

Diogenes,  453. 

Dion,  478. 

Discipline  of  boy,  280. 

Domitian,  392,  446. 

Draco,  345. 

Drama,  33. 

Duties  of  wife,  42  ff. 

Education,  supreme  importance,  168, 
311;  foundation  of  state,  180,  272; 
divisions  of,  138,  233,  275 ;  periods  for 
respective  stages,  216,  248;  nature  of, 
222 ;  subject-matter,  223,  230,  283 ;  for 
public  good,  225,  281 ;  aim,  229  ;  com¬ 
pulsory,  243 ;  related  to  state,  274 ;  of 
body  precedes  mind,  278 ;  by  ap¬ 
prenticeship,  368 ;  instruction  before 
practice,  369 ;  at  home,  280,  376,  451 ; 
by  example,  396,  420;  neglected  by 
wealthy,  418;  public  rather  than  pri¬ 
vate,  459. 

Egypt,  static  education  of,  226;  how 
secured,  236 ;  method,  258. 

Ekklesia,  102. 

Empedicles,  468. 

Ennius,  347,  349,  350,  443,  471. 

Enyalios,  33. 

Ephebes,  8,  32,  302,  304 ;  oath  of,  23. 

Ephori,  23. 

Ephorus,  492. 

Epicurus,  298,  365. 

Euripides,  286,  312,  319. 

Eurydice,  325. 


Fabricius,  508. 

Flatterers,  danger  of,  323. 

Flavius,  397. 

Fronto,  Cornelius,  380. 

Fuscus,  Cornelius,  413. 

Galba,  445. 

Gallus,  Sulpicius,  478. 

Geometry,  its  importance,  205,  476;  when 
to  be  taught.  216. 

Gorgias,  57,  61,  102.  312,  497. 

Gracchi,  362,  394,  443. 

Grammatists,  347,  351,  391,  467,  483. 

Greek  Education,  periods,  1,51,  116,  129, 
265,  295  ;  character,  3,  58  ;  sources,  4. 
54,  1 16,  296. 

Gregory,  of  Nazianzus,  296  ff. ;  panegyric 
of,  3°5- 

Gymnastic,  school  of,  32;  changes  in, 
59;  of  military  type,  163;  part  of 
education,  223 ;  proper  character, 
233 ;  branches  of,  252 ;  importance  of, 
316. 

Habit,  precedes  instruction,  278;  pre¬ 
cedes  reason,  285. 

Hadrian,  301,  347,  392. 

Hegemone,  33. 

Helotes,  21,  22. 

Hermagoras,  497. 

Hesiod,  140,  319,  454. 

Hippias,  61. 

Hispulla,  Correlia,  394,  410. 

Homer,  140,  142,  148,  150  ff,  242,  284, 
469;  unfit  for  educational  purposes, 
147  ff 

Homeric  period,  2. 

Horace,  387,  390,  469;  Satires,  396; 
Epistles ,  398  ;  Ars  Poetica,  399. 

Hortensius,  Quintus,  452,  485. 

Hunting,  263. 

Hypereides,  433. 

Individualism,  27,  52. 

Instruction  of  servants,  43. 

Iren,  16. 

Ischomachus,  37  ff. 

Isocrates,  56  ff. ;  Against  Sophists,  91; 
Exchange  of  Estates,  95 ;  defends 
Sophists,  105 ;  pupils  of,  492. 

Justinian,  302. 

Juvenal,  389  ff. ;  Satires,  416,  419. 


Index 


5*3 


Knowledge  gained  through  observation, 
165 ;  as  opposed  to  opinion,  185  ff. ; 
separated  from  practice,  367 ;  how 
acquired,  413 ;  requires  power,  435. 

Lacedaemon,  education  in,  15  ft.,  244 ;  de¬ 
fect,  278,  285  ;  musical  education,  287. 

Laelius,  Sapiens,  452. 

Lampadio,  C.  Octavius,  350. 

Leisure,  life  of,  commended,  245,  277. 

Leonidas,  453. 

Leonidas,  King,  19. 

Linus,  473. 

Literators,  347,  351. 

Literature,  objections  thereto,  139,  385 ; 
educational  difficulties,  249;  Socratic 
dialogues  commended,  250;  value  of, 
316,  475 ;  poetry  is  best  form  of, 
398. 

Lucilius,  350,  471. 

Lucretius,  468. 

Ludus,  347,  390,  394. 

Lycurgus,  5,  15  fti,  345 >  433* 

Marcellus,  Marcus,  433. 

Martial,  387  ff. ;  Epigrams ,  399. 

Mathematics,  basis  of  highest  knowl¬ 
edge,  257 ;  its  need,  259. 

Maximus,  381. 

Melliren,  16. 

Memory,  improvement  of,  219. 

Menander,  470. 

Metrodorus,  365. 

Moral  Education,  419,  487,  503,  506. 

Mucius,  Quintus,  363,  508. 

Musaeus,  287. 

Music,  school  for,  32;  changes  in,  59, 
82;  an  empirical  science,  210;  its  re¬ 
straining  force,  237  ff. ;  controlled  by 
State,  238 ;  principles  of,  252, 283,  294 ; 
why  studied,  286  ff. ;  preference  of  in¬ 
struments,  291. 

Musonius,  388  ff. ;  Education  of  Women, 
400. 

Nepos,  Cornelius,  351,  371,  375. 

Nero,  387. 

New  Greek  Education,  6,  51,  58 ;  consid¬ 
ered  as  bad,  72,  83  ff. ;  superficiality, 
78  ;  contrasted  with  old,  80  ff. 

Nicias,  478. 

Nicostratus,  493. 

Nikokles,  98. 

2  L 


Oath  ofEphebes,  33. 

Old  Greek  Education,  3,  5;  contrasted 
with  new,  80  ff. ;  respect  for,  108. 

Opinion,  as  opposed  to  knowledge,  185 
ff. ;  of  public,  not  to  be  followed,  228 ; 
subject-matter  of  arts  and  science,  252. 

Oratory,  Isocrates  on,  93;  Tacitus  on, 
361 ;  obtained  through  experience,  364, 
443;  reason  for  decline,  366;  not  sole 
aim,  414;  idea  of,  425;  aim  of  educa¬ 
tion,  428;  qualifications  for,  429,432; 
in  reference  to  philosophy,  433,  436; 
definition  of,  433, 447 ;  subject-matter, 
444, 494, 496 ;  success  in,  499  ffi 

Orbilius,  387,  398. 

Orpheus,  473. 

Over-study,  478. 

Pacuvius,  471. 

Pandeletus,  81. 

Parrhasios,  95. 

Pericles,  8,  24  ff.,  52,  313. 

Persia,  laws  contrasted,  123 ;  educational 
system,  123  ff. ;  class  education,  127. 

Phidias,  95,  489. 

Philip  V.,  301. 

Philip  of  Macedon,  456. 

Philosopher,  definition  of,  182 ;  true  ruler 
of  state,  190 ;  concerned  with  Dialectic, 
214;  qualifications  for,  215 ;  relation  to 
Oratory,  436. 

Philosophical  Education,  opposed  by 
popular  opinion,  107,  hi;  corrupted 
by  Sophists,  113;  its  true  adherent, 
114;  schools  of,  297  ff. ;  end  of  learn¬ 
ing,  314,  4371  for  women,  404;  con¬ 
nection  with  Rhetorical,  107,  432  ff., 
496;  divisions  of,  505. 

Phocylides,  309. 

Pindar,  103. 

Plato,  129  ff.,  320;  Protagoras ,  7,  31; 
Republic,  130,  138;  Laws,  134,  222; 
on  Sophists,  63,  109  ff . ;  solution  of 
educational  problem ,  130 ;  differs  from 
Socrates,  131;  ideal  government,  136, 
180;  defines  philosopher,  182;  and 
Aristotle,  265;  and  Academy,  297; 
care  of  children,  308 ;  and  Cicero,  431, 
438  ;  skill  of,  481. 

Plautus,  356,  360. 

Play,  217,  234,  279,  466. 

Pliny,  347,  358,  388,  450;  Epistles ,  406, 
410,  411,  413. 


5i4 


Index 


Plutarch,  5,  296,  329 ;  Life  of  Lycurgus, 
15  ff. ;  Training  of  Children ,  307  ff. 

Pollio,  417. 

Praxiteles,  494. 

Prodicus,  56,  61. 

Protagoras,  7,  31  ff.,  61  ff. 

Punishment,  objected  to,  317 ;  defended, 
466. 

Pythagoras,  322,  481. 

Pythagoreans,  206,  308,  481. 

Quintilian,  392,  418,  427,  445;  Institutes 
of  Oratory,  451  ff. ;  defends  orators, 
447, 498 ;  agrees  with  Plato  and  Cicero, 
495- 

Regulus,  508. 

Religious  Education,  which  tales  do 
harm,  145;  part  of  State  in  education, 
172,  261 ;  end  of  education,  262. 

Rhetorical  Education,  relation  to  Philo¬ 
sophical,  107,  423  ff.,  496;  in  Rome, 
352>  35$  I  formal  character  of,  369, 390, 
416,  484;  influence  of,  380;  curricu¬ 
lum,  437,  484;  opposed,  442;  pre¬ 
requisite,  472;  time  of  study,  482. 

Roman  Education,  periods,  327,  346,  355, 
386,  421,  445 ;  sources,  328,  346,  356, 
371,  387.  423.  446 1  ideals,  331,  390  ; 
subject-matter,  333,  358,  366,  390,  447 ; 
introduction  of  schools,  347  ;  periods 
contrasted,  356,  359  ff. ;  decadence, 
394 ;  materialistic  tendencies,  398. 

Rufus,  P.  Sulpicius,  423. 

Saturninus,  Pompeius,  406. 

Scaevola,  Q.  Mucius,  423,  452. 

Scholarchs,  298. 

Scholarships,  founding  of,  408. 

Schools,  of  Sophists,  297 ;  poorly  man¬ 
aged,  399 ;  supported  by  people,  412 ; 
of  rhetoric,  416. 

Seneca,  393 ;  Epistle ,  400. 

Servants,  instruction  of,  43. 

Servius  Tullius,  418. 

Sextus,  Pompeius,  379,  435. 

Socrates,  35  ff.,  53  ff.,  118  ff.,  138  ff., 
308  ff,  320,  383 ;  caricatured  by  Aris¬ 
tophanes,  70  ff. ;  position  towards 
Sophists,  119;  objects  to  certain  litera¬ 
ture,  142 ;  care  for  children,  310. 

Solon,  216,  433. 

Sophists,  56  ff.,  60  ff. ;  popular  opinion 


of,  71;  caricatured,  75  ff.;  ability  to 
teach  everything,  79;  attacked  by 
Isocrates,  91  ff. ;  cause  for  being  hated, 
94  ff. ;  defended  by  Isocrates,  105; 
attacked  by  Plato,  no  ff. ;  teachings 
of,  117;  schools  of,  297. 

Sotades,  470. 

Soul,  275,  345. 

Spartan  Education  :  care  of  children,  15 ; 
method,  17,  320;  in  poetry  and  music, 
19 ;  preparation  for  war,  20 ;  occupa¬ 
tional;  of  women,  36;  weakness  of, 
276. 

Speaking,  power  of,  108 ;  preparation 
for,  3T3I  simplicity  advised,  314. 

Speusippus,  297,  320. 

State,  founded  on  education,  180,  221, 
272;  ruled  by  philosophers,  190  ff . ; 
qualifications  for  rulers  of,  215  ff. ; 
supervision  of  children,  230;  control 
over  arts  and  sciences,  142  ff.,  161, 
238 ;  relation  of  education  to,  274. 

Stilpo,  312. 

Stoic  philosophy,  298,  373,  378. 

Strategi,  96. 

Suetonius,  347,  388 ;  Selections ,  349,  352, 
375.  4°o* 

Sulla,  301. 

Tacitus,  347,  357,  372,  388, 411, 450 ;  Con¬ 
cerning  Oratory,  361  ff. ;  Agricola ,  376. 

Teacher,  training  and  work  of,  247; 
of  lyre,  251 ;  choice  of,  309,  410,  413, 
451,  485 ;  cooperation  with  parents, 
318;  relation  to  pupil,  361,  486,  493; 
little  respected,  418 ;  qualifications  of, 
465.  49°. 

Teaching,  by  example,  325;  by  imita¬ 
tion,  400;  aided  by  nature,  494. 

Telephus,  81. 

Terence,  471. 

Thallo,  33. 

Theodorus,  417. 

Theophrastus,  298,  431,  433. 

Theopompus,  492. 

Theorists,  historical  period  and  sources, 

1 16;  problem  of,  116;  philosophical 
period,  129. 

Thesmothetae,  106. 

Thracians,  244. 

Thrasymachus,  418. 

Thucydides,  8,  22;  speech  of  Pericles, 
24  ff. 


Index 


515 


Timagenes,  474. 

Timotheos,  101. 

Tragedies,  256. 

Trierarch,  96. 

Truthfulness,  importance  of,  321. 

Twelve  Tables,  importance  of,  328,  345, 
355.  4331  description  of,  330;  frag¬ 
ments  of,  334  ff. 

University  of  Athens,  295,  300  ff. 

Varro,  468. 

Ventidius,  418. 

Vespasian,  301,  388,  392,  400,  445. 

Virgil,  466,  469,  474,  502. 

Virtue,  taught,  32,  107 ;  belongs  to  man 
of  wisdom,  165  ;  elements  of,  273,  307. 

Wisdom,  aim  of  education,  165. 
Women,  education  in  Greece,  34 ff.;  in¬ 


struction  of  wife,  39;  care  of  house¬ 
hold,  40;  duties  of,  42;  education 
similar  to  that  of  men,  173  ff.,  400; 
particular  songs  for,  241 ;  compulsory 
education,  243;  education  in  Rome, 
394 ;  chiefly  moral,  404. 

Wrestling,  importance  of,  253. 

Xenophon,  35,  120;  Economics ,  37  ff, ; 
Cyropcodia ,  122. 

Youth,  education  in  Sparta,  16  ff;  edu¬ 
cation  in  Persia,  124 ff.;  education 
should  imitate  true  character,  156; 
experience  evil  as  well  as  good,  164; 
period  for,  217 ;  errors  of,  321 ;  in 
Rome,  375  ;  ability  of,  480. 

Zenodotus,  303. 

Zeuxis,  50,  95. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


THE  TEACHERS’  PROFESSIONAL  LIBRARY 

Under  the  General  Editorship  of  NICHOLAS  MURRAY  BUTLER,  Professor  of 
Philosophy  and  Education  in  Columbia  University. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ELEMENTARY  HATH EMATICS 

Ey  David  Eugene  Smith,  Principal  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Brockoort  N  Y. 
Cloth,  i2mo.  $1.00,  (Now  ready.)  ’ 


This  book  will  be  particularly  interesting  to  progressive  teachers,  for  they  will  find  much 
in  it  that  will  be  helpful  to  them,  especially  in  guiding  them  to  higher  levels.  I  wish  to 
strongly  recommend  it  to  all  teachers  of  elementary  mathematics,  for  it  cannot  fail  to  create 
new  interests  and  desires  for  better  things  It  gives  a  resume  of  many  of  the  best  authorities 
on  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry,  including  an  account  of  their  oriuin  and 
development.  —Professor  W.  H.  Metzler,  Syracuse  University,  in  Journal  of  Pedagogy 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

By  Edward  R.  Shaw,  Ph.D.,  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Pedagogy  in  the  New  York  Univer¬ 
sity.  Cloth,  i2mo.  $x.oo,  ( Now  ready.) 

“  This  volume  sets  forth  the  conditions  which  should  surround  children  at  school  in  order 
that  their  mental  and  physical  health  may  be  thoroughly  protected.  He  discusses  school- 
r?°lm»  building,  grounds,  warming,  ventilation,  sanitation,  baths,  furniture,  posture,  exercise, 
sight,  hearing,  handwriting,  school  diseases,  and  conditions  conducive  to  healthful  mental 
work,  and  appends  a  brief  but  well  chosen  bibliography,  all  but  two  titles  of  which  are  English. 
I  here  are  plans  of  buildings,  seats,  windows,  etc.,  and  about  sixty  cuts  in  the  work.” 

—  The  Pedagogical  Seminary. 

THE  NEW  BASIS  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

By  Jacques  W.  Redway,  F.R.Q.S.  Cloth,  nmo.  $1.00.  (Now  ready.) 

This  volume  is  designed  to  point  out  the  salient  features  that  constitute  the  “new”  o? 
geography.  After  presenting  the  gradual  development  of  human  knowledge  concerning  the 
form  and  size  of  the  earth,  the  author  shows  the  marvellous  results  of  discovery  that  followed 
\xre  klockading  of  the  trade  routes  between  Europe  and  Cathay,  —  the  discovery  of  the  New 
World,  the  finding  of  an  all-water  route  to  India,  the  decline  of  the  commercial  power  of 
Genoa  and  Venice,  and  the  battle  between  the  factory  and  the  feudal  system  that  established 
the  centres  of  commerce  in  western  Europe  and  in  the  New  World. 

Throughout  the  book  Mr.  Redway  intimately  analyzes  the  close  relation  between  topog* 
raphy  and  climate  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  activities  of  human  life  on  the  other. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH 

By  Percival  Chubb,  M.  A.,  of  the  Ethical  Culture  School.  New  York  City.  Cloth,  ranro. 

(In  preparation.) 

This  book  expresses  the  conviction  that  if  we  are  to  make  good  the  serious  shortcomings 
of  our  school  training  in  English,  it  must  be  by  more  effective  work,  not  alone  or  chiefly  in  the 
high  school,  but  throughout  the  elementary  school  course.  This  book,  therefore,  devotes 
special  attention  to  the  work  of  the  elementary  school.  It  sketches  a  unified,  progressive, 
rich,  and  well-articulated  course,  covering  the  whole  period  from  the  kindergarten  through 
the  high  school,  and  deals  with  the  difficulties  and  problems  which  meet  the  teacher  in  devel¬ 
oping  the  student’s  twin  powers  of  appreciation  and  expression.  The  treatment  is  practical, 
and  the  recommendations  are  the  outcome  of  the  writer’s  efforts  and  experiences  in  the  class¬ 
room.  It  lays  stress  upon  the  fundamental  need  of  a  better  literary  equipment  of  the  teacher, 
and  the  consistent  application  of  literary  principles  and  standards  in  school  work.  Unless 
our  teachers,  the  author  insists,  speak  and  read  and  write  well,  and  by  their  exemplary  influ¬ 
ences  win  their  pupils  to  good  habits  of  thought,  feeling,  and  language,  and  to  worthy  prefer¬ 
ences  and  pleasures,  no  great  advance  can  be  looked  for.  The  book  aims  to  invest  school 
work  in  English  with  the  literary  quality  and  attractiveness  that  must  belong  to  it,  if  it  is  to 
be  the  most  powerful  school  agency  for  the  refinement  of  manners,  the  enrichment  of  inter¬ 
course,  and  the  ennobling  of  character. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

66  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 


THE  MEANING  OF  EDUCATION,  WITH  OTHER 
ESSAYS  AND  ADDRESSES 

By  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  Columbia  University.  Cloth,  i2mo.  $1.00. 

HAMILTON  W.  MABIE 

“  I  do  not  recall  any  recent  discussion  of  educational  questions  which  has  seemed  to  me  so 
adequate  in  knowledge  and  so  full  of  genuine  insight.” 


REVIEW  OF  REVIEWS 

“We  are  sure  that  the  teachers  of  the  country  will  be  glad  to  have  these  articles  and 
addresses  brought  together  in  a  single  volume.  On  all  that  pertains  to  the  science  of  educa¬ 
tion  no  writer  more  readily  commands  assent  than  Dr.  Butler.” 


SOCIAL  PHASES  OF  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SCHOOL 

AND  THE  HOME 

By  Samuel  T.  Dutton,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Brookline,  Mass.  Cloth,  i2mo.  $1.23. 

EDUCATIONAL  AIMS  AND  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES 

By  Paul  H.  Hanus,  Assistant  Professor  of  the  History  and  Art  of  Teaching,  Harvard 
University.  Cloth,  i2mo.  $1.00. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD 


Jy  Nathan  Oppenheim,  Attending  Physician  to  the  Children’s  Department  of  Mt.  Sinai 
Hospital.  Cloth,  nmo.  $1.25, 


THE  PHYSICAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD, 

AND  HOW  TO  STUDY  IT 

By  Stuart  H.  Rowe,  Supervising  Principal  of  the  Lovell  District,  New  Haven,  Conn. 
Cloth,  i2mo.  $1.00. 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHILDREN  AND  THEIR  SCHOOL 

TRAINING 


By  Francis  Warner,  M.D.  Cloth,  i2mo.  $1.00, 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

66  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 


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